Full text of "Composers"

See other formats

RAL LEADERS 0

• JAYADEVS~-»-KSHETRAJN^

Kjallapaka ANNAMAOJA^A

• t^aga baja • m aha^jasvati

TIRUNAL • SYAMA SASTRI

•^^THUSWAMY DIKSHITAp^^

• GOPA^® 5 §ilNABHARATI '

■ ''''' ' ' ‘ I M''''i' ' '''i\ ' ''I't'''''' '/ ' ' / ^ 1 '

k IkJTTt Tlr 1 TfcTrT^ A cy.

COMPOSERS

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2018 with funding from
Public.Resource.org

https://archive.org/details/composersOOragh

Cultural Leaders of India

COMPOSERS

Jayadeva • Kshetrajna • TallapakaAnnamacharya
Tyagaraja • Maharaja Svati Tirunal • Syama Sastri
Muthiiswamy Dikshitar • Amir Khusrau • Tansen
Gopalakrishna Bharati • Swami Haridas

General Editor : V. Raghavan

PUBLICATIONS DIVISION

MINISTRY OF INFORMATION AND BROADCASTING
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

First Edition - August 1979 (Bhadra 1901)

First Reprint- April 1991 (Baishakh 1913)

Second Reprint- 2000 (Saka 1922)

ISBN ; 81-230-0938-0

Price : Rs. 45.00

Published by the Director, Publications Division,

Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India,
Patiala House, New Delhi- 110001.

Sales Emporia • Publications Division

• Patiala House, Tilak Marg, New Delhi - 110 001

• Super Bazar, Connaught Circus, New Delhi - 110 001

• Hall No. 196, Old Secretariat, Delhi - 110 054

• Commerce House, Currimbhoy Road, Ballard Pier,

Mumbai - 400 038

• 8, Esplanade East, Calcutta - 700 069

• Rajaji Bhawan, Besant Nagar, Chennai - 600 090

• Press Road, Thiruvananthapuram- 695 001

• State Archaeological Museum Building, Public Gardens,
Hyderabad -500 004

• 1st Floor, 'F Wing, Kendriya Sadan, Koramangala,

Bangalore- 560 034

• Bihar State Co-operative Bank Building, Ashoka Rajpath,
Patna-800 004

• 27/6 Ram Mohan Roy Marg, Lucknow- 226 001

• Ambika Complex, 1st Floor, Above UCO Bank, Paldi,
Ahmedabad-380 007

• Naujan Road, Ujan Bazar, Guwahali-781 001

- >3

Sales Counters : Press Information Bureau

• C/o PIB, C.G.O. Complex, 'A' Wing, A.B. Road, Indore (M.P.)

• C/o PIB, 80, Malviya Nagar, Bhopal- 462 003 ( M.P.)

• C/o PIB, B-7/B, Bhawani Singh Road, Jaipur - 302 001

Printed at Shivam Offset Press, Nararna industnai Area; Phase-1. New Delhi-1 10 028

ABOUT THE SERIES

The object of the series is to offer the general reader, authentic
accounts of the life and work of the great personalities who have
contributed in large measure to Indian culture and philosophy and
influenced the mind and life of its people. The series includes about 125
such names-seers and philosophers, poets and dramatists, mystics and
religious leaders, writers on science, aestheticians and composers.

The books are intended for the average reader who is keen to learn
more about Indian culture without going into finer academic details.

Dr. V. Raghavan, General Editor of the series and an
outstanding Sanskrit scholar and Indologist passed away
while this book was still under production.

PREFACE

■Two volumes in this series have been devoted to saints and
mystics. The discourses and poetic outpourings of most of them are an
integral part of our musical heritage. This volume entitled “Composers”
includes only some of these luminaries. Those who figure here are
basically composers and their contributions form the high-watermark of
classical concert-music.

Jayadeva leads the galaxy of these composers. All music
compositions before the Gita-govinda can be seen only in music
treatises. Jayadeva's work is a masterpiece in Sanskrit poetry, imitated
endlessly by later poets and composers. It is also the fountain-head of
dance and dance-drama, and of the sampradaya of “madhura-bhakti”.
Annamacharya shares the honour of being the “Pitamaha” of Karnataka
music along with Purandaradasa. His compositions gave shape to the
Kirtana, a major song-form of Karnataka music. His creations include
the theme of madhura-bhakti but it was Kshetrajna who specialised in
it. An equally prolific composer, Kshetrajna was a master of the
rhetoric of love. He has composed a Pada for every possible hue of
nayaka and nayika as developed in the Alankara and Natya Sastras .
His Padas are still sung and their abhinaya form is popular in dance.

Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri form the
Trinity of Karnataka Music . In their compositions, the Kirtana or Kriti
form attained perfection. The variations in Raga and Tala, and their
amalgamation with Bhava go on to make the Kriti more than just a
recitative devotional composition. The repertoire of South Indian
concerts is dominated by their creations.

Although Tanjavur and Trivandrum are far from each other,
music and dance brought them close during the time of the Royal
Composer and patron Maharaja Svati Tirunal, whose varied com¬
positions include Kritis, Varnas, Padas, pieces for dance, Karnataka
and Hindustani modes and long-story compositions for
//<a'r/to/ 7 a.Gopalakrishna Bharati represents the Tamil composers of
this time. The long-story composition on Nanda, the Pariah—devotee
of Lord Nataraja made him immortal. He adopted colloquial Tamil in

his songs. There are very few Bharata Natya recitals without his song
on the dance of Nataraja, Natanam adinar in Raga Vasanta .
Vanigalamo, in which the Pariah-bhakta begs audience with the Lord
is another moving masterpiece in Raga Manji.

Three outstanding names in the history of Hindustani music are
Amir Khusrau, Tansen and Swami Haridas. The first is usually
considered to be responsible for the Persian influences in North Indian
music, Ragas, song forms and instruments. The other two were primarily
musicians, pioneers of the highest form of North Indian music, the
Dhrupad. Haridas was a saint-singer who shunned courts and patrons
and sang only of God and for God .

The contributors to this series are people who have made special
study of the subjects of their article. Regarding the details about the lives
of the personalities, biographical evidence is available only in some cases.
For the rest there is an indistinguishable blend of legend with history.
These, however, are important as they reflect the popular image of these
great artists and people’s evaluation of their contributions.

V.RAGHAVAN

OUR CONTRIBUTORS

Swami Prajnanananda,
Ramakrishna Vedanta Math,
Calcutta.

P. V. Rajamannar,

Retired Chief Justice of Madras
High Court, Madras.

R. A. Jayantha,

Lecturer in English, Sri
Venkateswara University,
Tirupati.

(Late) V.Raghavan,

Retired Professor of Sanskrit,
University of Madras, Madras.

S. Venkitasubramoni Aiyar,
Sanskrit Department,

University of Kerala,
Trivandrum.

(Late) P. Sambamurti,

Retired Professor of Music,
University of Madras,

Madras.

T. L. Venkatarama Iyer,

Retired Judge, Federal Court
of India, Madras.

Chaitanya P. Desai,

Research Officer,

University of Music, Khaira
Garh, M.P.

K. C. D. Brahaspati,

Chief Adviser, Music, All
India Radio,

New Delhi.

Mudikondan Venkatarama Iyer,
Principal, Teachers' College of
Music, Music Academy,
Madras.

Dr. B. C. Deva,

Assistant Secretary, (Music)
Sangeet Natak Akademi,

New Delhi.

CONTENTS

JAYADEVA

Swami Prajnananand ... ... 1

KSHETRAJNA

P. V. Rajamanna ... ... 5

TALLAPAKA ANNAMACHARYA

R. A.Jayantha ... ... 12

TYAGARAJA

V. Raghavan ... ... 20

MAHARAJA SVATI TIRUNAL

S. Venkitasubramonia Iyer ... ... 39

SYAMA SASTRI

P. Sambamoorthy ... ... 46

MUTHUSWAMY DIKSHTAR

T. L. VenkatarainaAiyer ... ... 53

AMIR KHUSRAU

Chaitanya P. Desai ... ... 63

TANSEN

K. C. D.Brahaspati ... ... 71

GOPALAKRISHNA BHARATI

Miidikondan C Venkatarama /yer ... ... 85

SWAMI HARIDAS
B.C.Deva

w'-

1, j;<.

’ ^ •

t 1 ''
i *

” 0 .,

\ ' V

V-

JAYADEVA

Swami Prajncmananda

Jayadeva was a great composer, poet and musician. A well-
known sloka^ mentions Umapatidhara, Govardhana, Sarana,
Dhoyi and Jayadeva as the five gems in the royal court of
Maharaja Laksmanasena. In the gloss, Vaisnavatosini, on the
Bhagavata it has been mentioned: ”Sri Jayadeva-sahacharena
maharaja Laksmanasenamantrivarena Umapatidharena. ” From
this, it is understood that Jayadeva was one of the royal poets
(sabha-kavi) of Maharaja Laksmanasena. Scholars accept that
Jayadeva was a court-poet of Maharaja Laksmanasena, the last
Hindu king of Bengal.

Jayadeva lived in the middle or the end of the twelfth century
A.D. His native place was Kendubilva (Kenduli) in the Birbhum
(ancient name Kamakoti) district of West Bengal. The present
name of Kendubilva is Jayadeva-Kenduli. Jayadeva's father's
name was Bhojadeva and mother's name was Vamadevi. The
poet married Padmavati. One of the commentators of the Gita-
govinda, commenting on the words "padmavati-charana-
charana-chah^avarti” in the text, says: "tatha-naiimi Jayadeva-
patni. ” Some hold that the name of the wife of Jayadeva was
Rohini. The followers of the Sahajiya doctrine say that Rohini
was a parakiya, and the poet's real wife was Padmavati, who was
well versed in the art of dance and music.

'Govardhanascha Sarano .layadeva Umapatih
Kavirajascha ratnani panchaite Laksmanasya cha.

“Some say that .layadeva's mother's name was Ramadevi or Radhadevi. But
these suggestions are not correct, because IVom many sources it is known that
Jayadeva's mother's name was Vamadevi.

COMPOSERS

There are some controversies as regards the birth-place of
Kavi Jayadeva. Some are of opinion that he came from Utkala
or Orissa, while others hold that he was born in South India.
Nevertheless, the prevailing view is that he was born in Bengal
(i.e. in West Bengal, known as the Radhadesa). In Sanskrit
literature, there are two other Jayadevas, one of them being the
composer of the prosody Chhandassiitra and the other the
composer of the drama, Prasarinaraghava and the book on
rhetoric, Chhandaloka.

Jayadeva was greatly influenced by the Vaishnava religion
and was devoted to the doctrine of Radha-Krishna (Radha-
Krishnatattva). There is a controversy regarding Radha as the
divine consort of Sri Krishna, as she is not met with at all in the
Bhagavata. However, we find the divine love sports of Radha
and Krishna in Jayadeva's celebrated songbook, the
Gitagovinda. Scholars have accepted that Jayadeva's poem
Gitagovinda exerted a great influence on the development of
Vaishnava poetry in Mithila (Bihar) and Bengal.

Jayadeva composed the religio-mystical songs of the Gita¬
govinda in Sanskrit "but their rhythm and rhyme belong to
Apabhramsha poetry". Dr. Sukumar Sen says that just before the
Turkish impact, during the reign of Maharaja Laksmanasena, the
country offered the last and most important contribution to neo¬
classical literature which is Jayadeva's Gitagovinda. "By
injecting the tenderness and mellifluence of the popular musical
lyric into the strong frame of Sanskrit poetry, Jayadeva made the
last attempt at its resurrection."

The songs of the Gitagovinda, known also as Astapadis, are
specimens of the richest and finest sringara-rasa-kavya; they
represent the highest aesthetic quality. The general category
under which the musico-literary composition of the Gitagovinda
comes is a prabandha which comprises six limbs (angas). The
style of the Gitagovinda is marked by soft and fluid syllabic
schemes that charm all lovers of poetry and music. As for
example,

lalitalavangalata parisilana komalamalayasaniire

madhukara nikara karamvita kokila kiijita kimja kutire

JAYADEVA

viharati haririha sarasavasante

nrityati yuvatijanena samam sakhi virahijanasya durante.

We generally find in old Bengali songs the Krishna-Vishnu
or Siva-Sakti legends or mystic and ritualistic elements of
esoteric cults. In the Gitagovinda of Jayadeva, we have the
divine sport (lila) of Radha-Krishna as a means of worship and
devotion (sadhana or upasana). Known for its aisvarya
(richness) and madhurya (beauty), it is depicted in the form of
different aesthetic sentiments (rasasvadana). We find here also
the scheme of nayaka-nayika-bheda (different forms of hero and
heroine in love) and that of upasya-upasaka-bheda (different
types of deity and devotee). Chaitanyaite Vaishnavas and other
Bhakti schools therefore regard the Gitagovinda not only as a
poetic composition of great beauty, but also as a religious work
and explain it in terms of the bhakti-rasa-sastra.

The Gitagovinda of Jayadeva is composed with its supreme
Nayaka (hero) as Sri Krishna-Bhagavan and its nayika as the
Parama-Prakriti, Sri Radhika. This musical poem is divided into
twelve cantos (sargas), having different names like samoda-
damodara, aklesa-kesava, mugdha-madhusudana, dhrista-
vaikuntha, nagara-narayana, etc. There are twenty-four songs
(ganas) set to twelve classical ragas and five talas. The ragas
are: malava-gauda, gurjari, vasanta, ramakiri or ramakali,
karnata or (kanada), devasakha or desakha, desa-varadi, or
varadi, vibhasa, gondakiri, malava, bhairava and bhairavi, and
the talas are: yati, ekatali, rupaka, nihsara and astatala.

The raga forms as used in the Gitagovinda-padagana are
somewhat different from those of the present time.' At present,
the correct rendering of the raga forms of the Gitagovinda is
veiy rare, or rather it differs from one part of the country to the
other and one sampradaya to the other. It is sometimes claimed
that the correct rendering of the Gitagovinda-gdLndiS is found in
the temple of Jagannath in Puri in Orissa. But after close
examination it is found that that claim is not correct either in
Orissa or in Bengal. It has also been found that the musicians of

‘l have elaborately discussed this in my book. Historical Development of
Indian Music (1960), in the section on the raga-forms of the Gitagovinda.

COMPOSERS

It has also been found that the musicians of Tanjore' show their
superiority in the correct rendering of the tunes that are used in
the Gitagovinda. The Sarasvati Mahal Library of Tanjore has
published a book setting forth the abhinayas for rendering in
dance each of the songs of the Gitagovinda. The talas used in
the Gitagovinda are mostly those found in the padavali-kirtanas
of Bengal.

There are many commentaries on Jayadeva's Gitagovinda. In
the Aufrechfs Catalogus Catalogorum, we find at least forty of
them. The Balabodhini commentary or gloss of Pujari Goswami
is very popular in Bengal. Rana Kumbha (1433-1468 A.D.) of
Mewar wrote an elaborate commentary, Rasikapriya, on the
Gitagovinda of Jayadeva, and there he has described the ragas
used in the Gitagovinda, according to the practice known to
him. His monumental work, Sangitaraja, records those changed
classical forms of the ragas.

Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda was an inspiration to the composers
of the padavali-kirtanas; the Gitagovinda forms the background
of the evolution of the padavali-kirtana of Bengal. Jayadeva was
also the source from which themes of Krishnalila or doctrines of
Krishna-bhakti were evolved by later Vaishnava scholars and
aesthetes. The Gitagovinda inspired the Karnataka composers in
as a musician, as a mystic poet and a spiritual Vaishnava South
India and also a host of poets all over India who produced
numerous imitations of Gitagovinda. There can be no doubt that
the first and most important literaiy record of pre-Chaitanya
Vaishnavism in Bengal was the lyrical poem of Jayadeva which
must have been the living source of inspiration of later Bengali
poems of Sri-Krishna-kirtana, such as those of Badu Chandidas
(circa end of the 14th century). In conclusion, it can be said that
Kavi Jayadeva's name and contribution are still memorable, and
sadhaka he continues to be honoured to this day all over the
country.

'Also known as Tanjavur

KSHETRAJNA

P V. Rajamannar

Kshetrajna is undoubtedly the most outstanding composer of
padams in the Telugu language. Though originally padams in¬
cluded musical compositions with religious, devotional or philo¬
sophical themes, in later days, by the time of Kshetrajna,
sringara became the main, if not the only theme of padams. It is
true that the sringara-bhava was often associated with a deity,
specially, Krishna but on that account only, they cannot be taken
out of the category of padams with sringara as the main theme.

Very little authentic material is available to construct the life
of Kshetrajna. All that one can say with an amount of certainty
is that he lived in the first half of the 17th century, and the Rajah
of Tanjavur, Raghunatha Naik, and his son, Achyutha
Vijayaraghava Naik, were his patrons. He appears to have
obtained the patronage also of Tirumala Naik of Madura and the
Nawab of Golkonda. There is internal evidence in his padams of
his visits to several temples and sacred places. There are
apocryphal legends relating to Kshetrajna's life which are
founded more on imagination than on any reliable fact. Scholars
have tried to find autobiographical details in his padams to
weave a story of his life. The result is quite attractive but most
of their inferences are purely speculative.

Kshetrajna’s original name appears to have been Varadayya.
One cannot be certain when and why he came to be called
Kshetrajna. The term occurs in the 13th chapter of the
Bhagavadgita; but it is difficult to relate the concept of
"Kshetrajna" contained therein to the composer of the padams. It
may be that he attained in course of time the spiritual perfection

COMPOSERS

which justified the title. There is also the other popular version
that he got the name because of his visits to several kshetras.
There has been considerable controversy as to the place of his
birth. Several scholars, after great deal of research, have
suggested different villages. One of them gives it as the village
of Movva or Muvva in the district of Krishna in Andhra
Pradesh. This conclusion is based on most of the padams being
dedicated to Muvva Gopala. It is sufficient to mention a few
other villages, suggested by other scholars, namely, Movuru in
Chingleput district, a village of the same name in South Arcot
district, the village of Movaluru in Tanjavur district, all in the
present state of Tamil Nadu. Nevertheless, interesting though it
may be, the truth remains that a poet's or artist's worth does not
depend upon the place where he was born. Wherever his place
of birth, one thing is clear that his itinerary was more in the
Tamil districts. The places and deities mentioned in the padams
range from Chingleput (which is near Madras) to Madura in the
south; Trivellore, Chidambaram, Kanchipuram, Madurai,
Srirangam, Tanjavur, are all included in the list of places which
Kshetrajna visited. He also appears to have gone to Srisailam,
Cuddappah and Hampi.

Kshetrajna was a prolific composer. In one of his padams, he
himself mentions the number as 4500. However, today, in spite
of arduous effort on the part of music-lovers and scholars, about
350 only are available to us. Even these suffice to make us
realise his genius and versatility.

In some of the padams, there is mention of the name of one
or the other of his patrons, namely, Krishnappa Naik, who ruled
at Ginjee, during the end of the 16th century, Raghunatha Naik
of Tanjavur and his son Vijayaraghava Naik. In the majority,
however, there is a dedication only to Muvva Gopala. Unlike
other composers, Kshetrajna does not mention his own name.
The name 'Varada' occurs in some of the padams but clearly this
is a reference to the deity Varadarajaswami of Kanchipuram.

Nearly a century before Kshetrajna, Annamacharya, a great
devotee of Sri Venkateswara of Tirumala-Tirupati, had written
hundreds of padams. Indeed, he can be rightly called the father
of pada-kavitvam. Annamacharya's padams fall into two broad

KSHETRAJNA

categories, sringara padams and vairagya padams, according to
their themes. Kshetrajna was evidently influenced by
Annamacharya’s sringara padams. There is one difference
between these two great composers. Annamacharya's padams,
whether erotic or devotional, were all devoted to Sri
Venkateswara, whereas among the padams of Kshetrajna, there
are some which relate to living persons. It is also quite likely
that Kshetrajna was familiar with the compositions of the
famous Kannada musician-saint, Purandaradasa.

Kshetrajna's padams reveal a deep and extensive knowledge
of music. He has composed padams in over forty ragas. These
include ragas well known at the present day like Bhairavi,
Kalyani, Todi, Saveri, Bilahari and Sankarabharanam. Some of
the padams are in rare ragas, like Ghantarava, Saindhavi,
Khande. His favourite raga appears to be Kambhoji. In his
padams we can find a complete development of raga-bhava, in
an elaborate pattern of Pallavi, Anupallavi and Charanas. The
padams should generally be sung in the Vilamba-kala, slow
tempo. The talas which occur frequently are Triputa, Chapu and
Jhampa.

One important feature of Kshetrajna's padams is that they are
specially suited for abhinaya and natya. Kshetrajna had first¬
hand knowledge of the Natyasastra. Even to this day, his
padams always find a place in the repertoire of musicians who
accompany the dancers. Jayadeva had the good fortune of
having as his wife a talented dancer, Padmavati. Kshetrajna had
a reputation for amorous adventures with devadasis who were
primarily responsible for the preservation and continuity of the
dance traditions in this country and was apparently well
acquainted with the principles and practice of abhinaya. One
scholar is of the view that Kshetrajna lived near Koochipudi, the
seat of the well-known traditional school of dance, continued
from generation to generation by certain Brahmin families, who
devoted themselves entirely to this art and must have acquired a
thorough knowledge of Natyasastra from the masters in
Koochipudi. It is probable that he was a pupil in Koochipudi,
that he became friendly with and loved a fellow pupil, a
devadasi, to which fact there is an allusion in some of his

COMPOSERS

padams. All this is a conjecture. However, two facts remain
which are not controvertible. One is Kshetrajna's intimate
knowledge of Natyasastra and the other is the adoption of a
large number of Kshetrajna's padams to serve as a musical back¬
ground for generations of Koochipudi teachers and artists, I
have seen in manuscript detailed analysis of'some of the padams
of Kshetrajna for purposes of abhinaya in the hands of the
greatest exponent of the Koochipudi style of dance, Shri
Vedantam Lakshminarayana Sastri. Inextricably, if not
integrally, Natyasastra is associated with Alankarasastra. It is
not therefore surprising to find evidence of Kshetrajna's
thorough knowledge of Alankarasastra in his padams. In the
middle of the 16th century, Bhanu Datta Misra wrote a treatise
named Rasamanjari. Recently, a Telugu commentary on this
work called Sringara Rasamanjari has come to light. It is of
special interest for the reason that illustrations in this
commentary are furnished by Kshetrajna's padams. But it does
not follow that Kshetrajna deliberately composed his padams for
this purpose, namely, to give lakshyas for lakshanas in the
original. Apart from the Rasamanjari, there are a number of
well-known treatises, which deal with different types of nayika
and nay aka and which describe different vibhavas, anubhavas
and sancharibhavas depicting physical and psychological states,
with reference to the different rasas and it is not unlikely that
Kshetrajna studied several of them.

Treatises on poetics and Natyasastra mention several types of
nayikas. The enumeration is from different standpoints. There
are the three categories of sviya, the lawfully married wife;
parakiya, which term comprised both an unmarried girl and a
married woman, and samanya, one who is not bound by any tie
to any one, generally vesya (courtesan). There is another
classification based on sexual experience, mugdha, one who is
new to such experience, one of whose primary qualities is
shyness; madhya, one who is not new to such experience, but
who is still not forward enough and praudha, one who is well
versed in love-making. Each one of these types again falls into
different classes. There are then the well-known eight-fold
types, namely, svadhinapatika, one to whom the husband is
entirely devoted; Vasakasajjika, a woman waiting dressed and

KSHETRAJNA

adorned to receive her husband or lover; Virahotkanthita, one
who is eagerly and nervously anxious on account of her husband
or lover not turning up at the expected time; Vipralabdha, one
who is disappointed in not finding her lover at the appointed
place; Khandita, one whose lover has spent the night with
another woman, and who scolds him; Kalahantarita, one who
has quarrelled with her lover and sends him away and then
repents; Prositabhartrika, one who is pining for her lover, who
has gone abroad and Abhisarika, one who herself goes to meet
her lover. Among the padams of Kshetrajna, we can find
depictions of each one of these and other types of nayikas.

Kshetrajna's padams portray sringara rasa in all its infinite
variety. There are excellent examples both of samyoga sringara
and viyoga sringara, depicting the state of a nayika, when she is
with her lover and when she is alone, suffering the pangs of
separation, respectively. The different states, physical and
mental, of the nayika are elaborately described in the works
dealing with poetics. Each one of these states is described in the
padams of Kshetrajna.

In this context, it is apposite to refer to an aesthetic doctrine
that there is a special type of sringara rasa, which is an aspect of
Bhakti. The classic instance is of course the love of the Gopis
for Krishna. Roopa Goswami developed this theory in his work
Ujjvala Nilamanl This theory may sublimate the patently erotic
nature of the padams of Kshetrajna into expressions of spiritual
experience. I am, however, unable to find any trace of a
metaphysical exposition, directly or indirectly, in the padams of
Kshetrajna.

An important feature of Kshetrajna's padams is the language.
Though he was obviously a profound scholar in Telugu and
Sanskrit, his songs are in a soft, simple and mellifluous style.
Long and involved compounds do not occur. Nowhere do we
find Sanskrit words having a harsh quality. The melody of the
Telugu language is nowhere more evident than in his padams.
He often uses colloquial expression. His padams are full of
proverbs and idioms, which belong to the common people.
There is never a parade of learning. As they were intended to be
sung, Kshetrajna has always a regard for euphony.

COMPOSERS

In the composition of the great masters of South Indian
Music, there is no dichotomy between the sangita and the
sahitya, i.e., between the musical form and the literary content.
Both emerge simultaneously as a finished creative work. Such
composers are called vaggeyakaras. Kshetrajna belongs to that
class along with Purandaradasa, Tyagaraja, Dikshitar and Syama
Sastri. The aesthetic appeal of Kshetrajna's compositions is not
and should not be confined to either sangita or sahitya, divorced
from each other. Just as the kritis of Tyagaraja are the
outpourings of the heart, overflowing with Bhakti, in words
which acquire a significance in their musical clothing which
otherwise they would not have, likewise the beauty of the
padams of Kshetrajna, though they can be described as lyrics
from the literary point of view, will be fully appreciated only in
their musical setting.

I cannot refrain from dealing with the charge sometimes
levelled by the orthodox section of critics that obscene passages
often occur in his padams. It cannot be denied that the way in
which Kshetrajna deals with the erotic theme is frank and
uninhibited. In discussing this subject, one should not forget the
age in which Kshetrajna lived and the idea of obscenity that
prevailed then. It is thoroughly wrong to import mid-Victorian
prudery into a consideration of songs composed in the 17th
century. In well-known Sanskrit and Telugu kavyas, there are
elaborate descriptions of a woman's figure. In avowedly erotic
works like Amaru Satakam, there are intimate descriptions of
sexual experience. This is not anything peculiar to these two
languages. In ancient and medieval literature, the threshold of
obscenity was not so low as it came to be after the middle of the
19th century. Here are a few passages from one of the books of
the Old Testament The Song of Solomon, which for sheer poetic
charm are almost unsurpassed.

"The joints of thy thighs are like jewels

"Thy navel is like a round goblet

"Thy belly is like a heap of wheat
Set about with lilies."

KSHETRAJNA

"Thy two breasts are like two fawns
that are twins of a roe."

"Let thy breasts be as clusters of the vine,

"And the smell of thy breath like apples

"I am a wall, and my breasts like the towers thereof."

As far as I am aware, no one has characterised these passages as
obscene. The Song of Solomon remains to this day one of the
most beautiful love songs in the literature of the world.
Likewise, the padams of Kshetrajna will occupy the first rank in
love poetry, though here and there we may come across
passages not in accordance with modern taste and ideas of
obscenity.

In the history of the religions of the world again and again,
we find erotic symbolism used to expound the relationship
between the individual and the supreme being. The erotic then
becomes esoteric. In the Bhakti school of Vaishnavism, the
erotic motif occupies a prominent place. Krishna Paramatma is
the divine lover. The gopis are the individual jivatmas who seek
union or merger with the Lord. This relationship is known as
nayika-nayaka bhava or madhura bhava. It may be said that
Kshetrajna's padams depict this relationship. A classic parallel to
Kshetrajna's padams is furnished by the famous Astapadis in
Jayadeva's Gitagovinda.

To those who are interested only in music, Kshetrajna’s
padams have an appeal for their exposition of raga bhava, and
chowkakala; to those who are interested in poetry, his padams
will appeal as exquisite love-lyrics; to those who are devotees of
Sri Krishna, his padams will appeal by their portrayal of the all-
absorbing passion of the gopis for Gopala.

TALLAPAKA ANNAMACHARYA

R.A.Jayantha

The Tallapaka poets were a distinguished family of poets,
music composers and scholars in Telugu and Sanskrit in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries who did much to popularise the
Srivaishnava faith in Andhra Pradesh. Tallapaka, their native
village, is in Cuddapah district. Annamacharya,^ the greatest of
them, was famous during his own time. It is said that he had a
vision of Venkatesvara when he was sixteen and since then all
through his life he composed samkirtanas or padas on Him,
totalling thirty-two thousand. Of them about fourteen thousand
are available now, all beautifully engraved on copper plates, and
thus preserved for posterity, thanks to Annamacharya's son
Pedda Tirumalacharya. This loved legacy lay hidden for
centuries in a niche of Venkatesvara's temple at Tirumala to be
re-discovered and brought to light only in the thirties.

The little known about Annamayya's life comes mainly from
his biography written by his grandson Tiruvengalanatha alias
Chinnanna. Annamacharya was born in 1424 A.D. to
Narayanasuri and Akkamamba, in answer to their prayer to
Venkatesvara for a worthy son. They belonged to the
Nandavarika sect of Brahmins. Believed to be an amsa of the
Lord's sword Nandaka, Annamayya was born with devotion to
Venkatesvara. Even as a child he would not eat unless it was
given to him as His prasada, nor would he go to sleep unless the
lullaby was also about Him. Born as he was with a gift for
poetry and song, the boy Annamayya would improvise songs on
Venkatesvara, and sing and dance in ecstasy. Absorbed as he

' Also known as Annamayya

TALLAPAKA ANNAMACHARYA

was in the thoughts of God, he found attending to domestic
chores an intolerable interference with his preoccupation. So he
I'an away to Tirupati. By the time he could do the first steep
cl'inib of the Tirumala Hills, he felt exhausted and slept on a
stone. Then he dreamt of Alamelumanga, Venkatesvara's
consort, who told him that if he had climbed the sacramental hill
with unshod feet, he would not have been tired. Then She gave
him the prasada of the temple and assured him that he would see
the Lord. Annamayya, as he woke up from the dream, composed
extempore a sataka in Her praise. Doubly enthused, he
proceeded and reached the temple where, as he beheld the Lord,
he burst into a song of ecstatic praise. He has a few songs which
capture something of his thrill during his first visit to Tirumala.

When Annamayya approached the sanctum the next day, he
found it closed. But as he recited a newly-composed sataka on
Venkatesvara, its doors threw themselves open. In later life, he
was to work a few more miracles. He lived at Tirumala for
sometime and was initiated into the Srivaishnava faith.
Meanwhile, his people sought him out and took mm home.
Sometime afterwards, he was married to Tirumalamma and
Akkalamma. However, his marriage did not interfere with his
spiritual interests. He became a disciple of the great Vaishnava
saint Sathakopayati of Ahobalam, and studied all the sacred
texts. With time, his faith in Venkatesvara became deeper and
mature. In Him he found not only the most accessible God, but
also the immanent and transcendent God, who is the beginning
and end of all pursuits and knowledge as Annamayya was to
affirm in many a song later. Thus Venkatesvara became the
focus of his thoughts and feelings, and the ground and granite of
his very being. He dedicated himself and his talents to His
service. To sing Venkatesvara's praise became Annamayya's
vocation. Although he propitiated other deities like Rama,
Krishna, Narasimha and Vitthala, he viewed them all as forms
of Venkatesvara, the Ultimate Reality. "It does not matter whom
you worship," says he in a song, "as long as you know that there
is no God who is not a form of Hari."

Among the many who admired Annamayya's samkirtanas
was Salva Narasingaraya, a local chieftain, who later became a

COMPOSERS

king of Vijayanagar. For some time Aimamayya enjoyed his
patronage and friendship, and had his share of prineely pleasures
and luxuries. Narasingaraya desired him to compose songs in his
honour. Aimamayya would not oblige him, since his tongue
"used to the praise of Narahari could not bring itself to the praise
of mortals". Consequently, he was fettered. But as he sang in
appeal to Venkatesvara, the shackles gave way by themselves.
This experience drove home to him "the futility of ser^ing an
earthly master ignoring the Best Master". It was also a timely
reminder to him of his vocation. Annamayya spent the rest of
his life in the service of Venkatesvara, dividing his time between
Tallapaka and Tirupati. He became known far and wide for his
samkirtanas. Sage Purandaradasa, who had heard of
Annamayya's greatness, met him. Their meeting and their regard
for each other is very impressively described by Chinnanna.
Annamayya lived into ripe old age and breathed his last in 1503.

Of the dozen or more works, apart from the songs, attributed
to Annamacharya, only his sataka on Alamelumanga and
Sringara-manjari, a poem on a maiden's love for Venkatesvara,
are available now. His songs are, of course, his outstanding
achievement. He regarded them as 'flower-offerings' to God and
himself a mere instrument singing His praise at His behest.
While, through his songs, he exhorts and persuades others to
seek God in Venkatesvara, the primary urge behind them is the
felt creative need to give expression, as poetry and song, to his
own inextricable involvement in Venkatesvara. They are, in a
sense, literally samkirtanas since they all praise Him. In them
Annamayya prays and praises Venkatesvara, makes love to
Him, converses, argues and quarrels with Him, meditates on His
many attributes, confesses his failures and apprehensions, sues
for His grace, and surrenders himself to Him. Traditionally
Annamayya's songs are classified into Adhyatma and Sringara
Samkirtanas, although they are not necessarily mutually
exclusive.

The Adhyatma samkirtanas in the main affirm the primacy of
spiritual values over the purely mundane, and express the
inevitable tension between these in oneself They emphasise the
need for bhakti and virakti. The following paraphrase of a song

TALLAPAKA ANNAMACHARYA

(Bhaktikoladi vade paramatmudu in Ramakriya) suggests
something of the quality of Annamayya's devotion and of his
poetry. In a series of homely metaphors, he suggests the
accessibility of God to the devout; "God becomes manifest to us
according to our devotion to Him. As is our devotion to Him, so
will He be to us. He is our Providence and Deliverer. He is, for
the devout, the child that takes to whosoever invites it. He is
broad daylight, an open treasure, and is ever before us. He is the
butter gathered straightaway from fresh milk. He is the
whetstone for the world. Beautiful in Himself, He needs no paint
or colour. He is the quintessence of all speech. And He is our
loving and masterful Lord."

Despite such faith tensions, conflicts and apprehensions
because of the opposing pulls in himself troubled
Annamacharya. Many confessional songs give expression to
them. "To live and move aimlessly has been my lot. When do I
learn, O God, fixity of purpose? So unsteady am I that while I
inwardly desire renunciation, I seek outwardly indulgence ..."
bemoans he in a song (Kalakalamunitte Kipurapu hadukaye in
Padi).

Sometimes assuming liberty with God, Annamayya
converses with Him as a friend, and even jests with Him. Once
he tells Venkatesvara, half in jest and half in earnest, that His
"ways are so strange that they have neither head nor tail."
Another time he playfully tells God that even He "cannot escape
from the fruits of His karma."

Besides their devotional fervour, Annamayya's songs have
substantial thought content. Frequently he meditates on the
paradox that is God. Visvaprakasunaku in Kannadagoula is a
representative example of such songs. Annamayya lists the
many paradoxes of God in a series of questions suggestive of
their answers—"Could there be distinctions of 'interior' and
'exterior' for One who illumines the whole universe? Whence
birth and movement to Him who is eternal and fills everything?"

Temple festivities give Annamayya many occasions for song.
In all of them, he sees symbolic enactment of cosmic truths. For
example, in Alara Chanchalamaina (in Ahiri), as he describes

COMPOSERS

the dola of Venkatesvara and His consorts in all its
magnificence, he creates a graphic image of the entire cosmos at
the centre of which presides Venkatesvara. In the rhythmic
swing of the dola, Annamayya sees the cosmic rhythm.

Among the songs of Annamayy a available now, the Sringara-
samkirtanas outnumber the Adhyatmasamkirtanas by several
thousands. In them, he expresses love and longing for
Venkatesvara and his surrender to

Him in terms of those of a nayika for a nayaka. Probably in
adopting madhurabhakti, which had already an established
tradition, he was partly attempting to sublimate his own sensual
nature of which he was acutely aware. However, here
Annamayya speaks for himself and for others who similarly
long for God, and view spiritual life in terms of rakti rather than
virakti. For example, for the heroine of a song (Kamayagamu
cese kaliki) her union with her lover becomes a kamayaga to
propitiate God who is love. The Sringarasamkirtanas, through
innumerable dramatic situations of love, give expression to the
many splendours of love, its anguish, apprehensions and
despairs, all experienced for the sake of God. The following is a
paraphrase of a representative song, which tells of a virahini's
condition, as reported to her lover by a maid-in-attendance: "I do
not know how, but the damsel does not feel your separation at
all. Whoever told her, I do not know, that space is an aspect of
your greatness, she embraces it as she imagines your forms.
Perhaps she heard someone say that you are everywhere. So she
looks all around avidly. Since you, Venkatadhipati, have taken
her to yourself at every one of her thoughts and words, we have
to believe that you are everywhere.”

Some songs describe Alamelumanga's love for Venkatesvara.
In Alaridugiiriyaga, (in Sankarabharanam) Annamayya
recreates verbally every graceful gesture and movement of
Alamelumanga's dance before Venkatesvara meant to please
Him. Palukutenelatalli (in Salanganata) describes how the
"Mother of honey-sweet speech” pleases Him by every art of
love and finally possesses Him by surrendering Herself to Him.
From such songs Alamelumanga emerges as the prototype of all
seekers of union with God, just as Venkatesvara Himself

TALLAPAKA ANNAMACHARYA

remains the Purusottama to be loved and sought incessantly.
Generally songs using madhurabhakti tend towards mere
prurience, as many such latter-day songs would show. However,
Annamayya holds, by and large, the balance between the sensual
and the spiritual, although sometimes it is done precariously.
Usually in the latter half of each song, the sensual gets
sublimated into the spiritual. To illustrate, the first half of
Javvadimettinadi pictures admirably the voluptuous charms of
the heroine. In the second half she surrenders them all to
Venkatesvara and thus consecrates them.

The samkirtanas have a common structural pattern. Each
song comprises a pallavi, very occasionally an anupallavi, and
usually three metrically and musically identical four-line
charanas. The pallavi states the theme of the song which the
charanas elaborate with appropriate illustrations and analogies.
Like many other devotional singers, before and after him,
Annamayya freely uses the puranic lore. One is struck by the
idiom of the songs, which is a happy blend of literary and
spoken Telugu although he inclines towards the colloquial,
especially in the sringarasamkirtanas. Homely similes,
analogues and adages are countless. Consequently Annamayya's
expression is always concrete, direct, spontaneous and forceful.
In general, the songs exhibit a high degree of literary crafts¬
manship even though a good many seem to be extempore
utterances rather than conscious compositions. In songs of such
nature and bulk as Annamayya's, repetition of ideas and a
feeling of sameness are perhaps unavoidable.

Chirma Tirumalacharya, grandson of Annamayya, praises
him in his Samkirtanalaksana as 'Padakavitamargadarsi' and
'Padakavitapitamaha'. Posterity has endorsed this praise. But,
obviously, Annamayya was not the first to compose padas nor
the inventor of this form. The pada, which had been evolving
over many years seems to have emerged as a distinct and
standardised metrical form by the late fourteenth and early
fifteenth centuries. Annamayya's elder contemporary
Sripadarayasvami and his predecessors had already used the
pada form for writing devotional songs in Kannada.
Annamacharya, who was probably influenced by

COMPOSERS

Sripadarayasvami in this respect, seems, as yet, to be the first
writer of padas in Telugu. The pada is a difficult form to handle,
bound as it is by strict prosodic rules, and meant to serve the
purpose of both poetry and song. Annamayya uses it with such
mastery that it becomes a habit of his mind and a flexible
medium for expressing his religious and artistic sensibility. By
his extensive use of it for samkirtana he established it as a
respectable and independent genre, and set a model for
subsequent Telugu poet-composers, of whom Kshetrajna is the
most successful.

Annamayya's biographer records that when he sang, his
listeners felt that he was Narada or Tumburu reborn.
Unfortunately little is known about Annamayya's music or
musical thought. While his poetry could be preserved, thanks to
his son, his music could not be; for what reasons, it is not clearly
known. Not only are there no written records of his music—
perhaps that is too much to expect— but there is no living
tradition of singing his songs, although for several decades after
him his songs were sung daily at Tirumala and in Bhajanakutas.
In the Bhajanasampradaya of South India which is traced back
to him, the tradition in Tamil Nadu is said to remember still just
a few pieces of his. The copper plates mention only the raga of
each song. But what musical form and tala Annamayya assigned
to it is not known, nor there seems to be any means of
recovering or reconstructing authentically his music. He did not
have the advantage of an institution like the Dasakuta which
has, in a way, preserved the tradition of singing Dasarapadagalu.
However, since Annamayya's samkirtanas and the
Dasarapadagalu are similar in their structural pattern, and are
products of the same ethos, it is very likely that they resemble
each other musically also.

That Annamacharya knew all the musical modes and forms
of his times is obvious from his works. But he conceived his
padas as did the earlier devotional singers, primarily as
devotional poetry. Music was mainly an aid to render them
effectively. The kritis of Tyagaraja and others, on the contrary,
are conceived generally as musical compositions, and their
poetry, however impressive, is mainly a verbal scaffold for

TALLAPAKA ANN AM ACH ARY A

raising a musical structure. Musical thought, rather than poetie
thought, seems to determine their struetural pattern. Therefore
while singing Annamayya's padas, special attention to their
meanings will have to be given. Naturally, their sahitya gets
preeedence over their music. Moreover, their somewhat tight
structural pattern limits their musieal possibilities, although a
resoureeful musieian can always find scope for musical
elaboration.

Annamaeharya tried his hand at suladis. As yet only one of
them, a desi suladi, is available whieh is both a talamalika and a
ragamalika. It is interesting in that it begins with Malavagoula
and ends with Sri. In between elosely related ragas such as
Ramakriya, Varali, Bouli, Padi and Nata are employed. The
ragas used by Annamayya in his songs are only about a hundred.
A good many of them, such as Abali, Amarasindhu,
Kondamalahari, Sourastragujjari, etc., have become either rare
or obsolete now. Of the well-known ragas which are in use now
and used frequently by him are Mukhari, Sankarabharanam,
Kambhoji, Devagandhari, Ahiri, Sri, Kedaragoula, Bhairavi, etc.
Probably even these have undergone subtle changes since then.
Annamaeharya takes his place in the tradition of Karnataka
music as a great Padakarta. He belongs both to poetry and
music, perhaps more to the former, for his songs can be read and
appreciated even without their music.

TYAGARAJA

V. Raghavan

In several respects, the genius of Karnataka music may be
said to touch its high water-mark in Tyagaraja.^ The infinite play
of imagination and originality is evident in him more than in
other composers. In fashioning a variety of expressive forms in
well-known melodies or in newly invented melodies, in the
perfecting of the form of composition called Kriti and enriching
it with inventive elements, in the poetry and philosophy of the
text of the songs,—in all these, he stands out as the foremost
tone-poet and as the single complete example of the genius of
Karnataka music at its best and highest.

It is no wonder that in the last half a century and more, his
songs have come to dominate the concerts of Karnataka music.
Even among the three great composers—the celebrated trinity—
himself, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri whose
compositions threw into the background the earlier works,
Tyagaraja enjoys a special popularity with musicians and lovers
of music alike. His name, sometimes mentioned only as
'Ayyarval' or 'Swamigaf, evokes a special sense of veneration
among the votaries, active as well as passive, of the art. His
anniversary is an annual festival wherever, in India or now in
foreign countries too, there are South Indians.

Tyagaraja appeared in a period which was thronged with
giants in the art, performers, theorists, composers, makers of
dance-music, dance-drama and authors of compositions of
grammatical and scientific value (Laksanagitas, Thayas,
Varnas). Girirajakavi, perhaps his maternal grandfather, was a

Also Tyagaraja

TYAGARAJA

poet and composer. His guru was one of the great masters of the
time, Sonthi Venkataramana 3 ^a, son of Sonthi Subbayya. With
all the roads for the artists leading at that time to Tanjavur,
Karnataka music was getting enriched from all sides and
shaping itself through a ferment of theory and the formulation of
its grammar and crystallisation of the forms of its creative
expression. To have appeared amidst this throng of talent and to
have outshone them with his creations is indeed the greatest
testimony to his genius.

Tyagaraja was born in 1767 at Tiruvarur in Tanjavur district
of Tamil Nadu. Tiruvarur is not only a renowned place in the
religious history from the times of the Nayanars but was also the
religious headquarters, so to say, for the Mahratta rulers of
Tanjavur. Tiruvarur was also famous for the art of music and
dance centering round the great temple of Tyagaraja, the
dancing Siva deity at this place. Scholars and artists attached to
the Telugu and Mahratta courts of Tanjavur were living at
Tiruvarur. A leading Telugu writer and composer among them
was Girirajakavi and it is to his daughter that Tyagaraja was
born. It was after the presiding deity at Tiruvarur that the child
was named Tyagaraja.

Tyagaraja's family, on the side of his father, Rama Brahmam,
was living in Tiruvayyaru or Panchanada, a sacred place on the
Cauvery, about 11 km from Tanjavur, the seat of the ruling
Mahratta dynasty. Tyagaraja came of a Telugu Vaidika
Muriginadu family named Kakaria, and his ancestors must have
come from the Telugu area and settled here during the Nayak
rule of Tanjavur. The name Tiruvayyaru or Panchanada refers to
'five rivers' which flow through and near this place, a centre of
pilgrimage and festivals. Of the holy and beautiful Cauvery
flowing here, Tyagaraja draws a fine picture in two of his songs,
Muripemu in Mukhari and Sarivedalina in Asaveri. Tyagaraja
loved the Chola country as he says in the first two songs referred
to above: "The Chola-sima, the beautiful land in this world."

Details of Tyagaraja's life are known only from tradition,
some of which could be verified from references in his songs,
e.g., the names of his family and father which he mentions.
Tyagaraja is said to have married twice, the first wife having

COMPOSERS

died early without any issue. To the second wife was born a
daughter named Sita-lakshmi, and a son named Tyagaraja was
born to her. When this grandson died issueless, the main line of
Tyagaraja ended.

Tradition speaks of an elder brother of Tyagaraja named
Japyesa. To glorify Tyagaraja and provide background for some
songs of the composer, this Japyesa is made into a 'villain', who
ill-treated Tyagaraja, disapproved of Tyagaraja's devotional
activities, pressed him to seek royal patronage, threw into the
Cauvery the Rama image worshipped by him, partitioned the
ancestral house and so on. There must be some basis for these
stories to grow; actually in two of his songs, Tyagaraja speaks of
his elder brother: the Kapi piece Anyayamu Seyakiira, where.he
prays to God to free him from the troubles given by his elder
brother and Nadiipai in Madhyamavati, where he refers to
accusations against himself as being responsible for the partition
of the ancestral house to enable him to celebrate his festivals for
Rama. In two other pieces (Nayeda vanchana — Nabhomani. and
Etiila gapadiituvo — Ahiri), Tyagaraja mentions confrontation
with his agnates (dayadis).

Tyagaraja had to face many detractors even outside his
family. The single largest group of his songs—which are high-
strung on the emotional side—represents what he sang in
anguish of this hostile atmosphere in which he had to live. In the
song Prarabdha-inittundaga (Svaravali), he bemoans his fate:
"Those whom I help turn against me; those whom I treat
charitably level baseless charges against me." The detractors
around him reviled at his devotional activities as well as his
music compositions. In a number of songs, he prays to Rama to
protect him from these revilers; in Sarivarilona in Bhinna sadja,
he asks Rama: "Have I not been sufficiently ridiculed among my
compeers? ...Is it fair on your part passively to be seeing me
agonised in the midst of these wild prattlers?" All these trials,
like fire, made the gold of his faith in Rama glow brighter and
draw from him more and more masterpieces of moving music.

Tyagaraja had vowed to lead the life of voluntary poverty.
According to the tradition of the Bhagavatas, he adopted for his
livelihood Unchavritti, going out everyday singing the Lord's

TYAGARA.IA

songs and receiving handfuls of rice from householders who
might feel like giving. He sang of the Lord alone and avoided
Nara-stuti, praising mere man for obtaining rewards, which was
prohibited according to the practice of the devotees of the Lord.
Tyagaraja scrupulously observed this principle and his classic
song on this, Nidhi chala sukhama (Kalyani) is well known. He
asks here: "Does wealth (Nidhi) constitute happiness or does the
presence (Sannidhi) of Rama constitute happiness?... Flattery of
mere men bound in their own conceit or the singing of the
Lord—which conduces to greater happiness?"

In the practice of devotion, Tyagaraja followed the cult of
reciting Rama's saving name (Taraka Nama) for the prescribed
number of times. Rama-worship came down in his family as
mentioned by him in several songs and was strengthened by
contacts with the active promoters of that path at that time like
Upanishad Brahmendra of Kanchi who was a friend of
Tyagaraja's father and the invitation (Srimukha) from whom is
preserved in the Tyagaraja-manuscripts’ handed down in the
Walajahpet School of Tyagaraja's pupils. Tyagaraja himself
mentions one Ramakrishnananda, a sannyasin of his times, as
his guru. Tyagaraja is said to have successfully completed the
repetition of Rama-Nama 96 crores of times as prescribed, and
succeeded in gaining the vision of Rama.

Tyagaraja's songs embody many doctrinal ideas of this school
of reciting the divine Name (Nama-siddhanta) and of the larger
path of devotion, Bhakti-marga, songs which appear to have
been specially composed for use in religious-musical discourses
in Bhajanas, Kirtanas or Harikathas. Not only on the efficacy of
the Lord's Name but also on how best to recite it, Tyagaraja
speaks in his songs. In the well-known song in Purnachandrika,
Telisi Rama, Tyagaraja emphasises that the recitation of Rama's
Name is no mechanical muttering but should be based on a full
realisation of the significance that Rama is the Supreme Being;
and in another equally well-known song (Rama neeyeda
prema — Kharaharapriya), he stresses that the uttering of Rama
Nama should be accompanied by real love for Rama.

‘ These are now preserved by the Saurashtra Sabha at Madurai

COMPOSERS

The Ista-devata or favourite form of God that Tyagaraja
sought through the Name and whose glory he celebrated most in
his songs is that of Rama. He repeatedly declares that Rama was
his favourite Deity (Istadaivamii neeve—m a very appealing
Dhanyasi song —Syama Sundaranga); 'Rama alone is my God'
(Rama eva daivatam ...me — Balahamsa); 'Who is there to equal
you, O Rama' (Rama ni samanam evaru — Kharaharapriya);
'Rama alone is God' (Vadera Daivamu — Pantuvarali); and so
on. This Rama is not only the avatara endowed with infinite
excellence sung of by Valmiki. Tyagaraja has gone over, in his
songs, the whole epic and the episodes and exploits of Rama
described there; but behind all this there is the faith that Rama is
the Supreme God beyond the Trinity (see his isamanohari
song— Manasa Sri Ramachandruni), indeed the Para Brahman
itself. In his well-known Piirnachandrika song (Telisi Rama),
Tyagaraja declares that the word 'Rama' is a name of Para
Brahman, recalling the well-known elucidation 'Rama-padena
asau param Brahma abhidhiyate. ” As minstrel of Rama, by the
quality and quantity of his songs on Rama, Tyagaraja takes his
place in the galaxy of the great Rama-poets of India, who
followed in the wake of Valmiki. Tyagaraja came of a Smarta
family of Advait tradition and according to the catholic outlook
of this tradition, he sang of other deities too, Siva, Devi, etc. In
his song in Chayatarangini (Itara Daivamula) he says that his
mind is passionately in love with Rama without harbouring any
prejudice towards other deities and faiths. He believed in a
Bhakti which had its consummation in the undifferentiated
union with Godhead, (So'ham-bhavana), as he says in his song
Intakarma in Bilahari.

In a large number of songs Tyagaraja expatiates on the
character of true devotion and of a true devotee, on the futility of
observing mere rites and rituals and other formalities and
accessories like baths in sacred waters, long pujas, etc., on the
necessity for ethical and moral qualities rather than for
conformity to mere orthodox habits, etc. These songs, in which
Tyagaraja is eloquent follow the line of the exhortations of all

TYAGARAJA

the earlier saint-singers.’ In the Dhanyasi song Dhyaname, for
example, he points out that the best bath in Ganga is the
contemplation of the Lord. He refers in Nadachi nadachi
(Kharaharapriya) and Balamu kiilamu (Saveri) to pretenders
who bathe, fast, close their eyes, and roll the rosary. The picture
of a true devotee is given in the Begada song Bhaktuni
Charitramii: "O Mind! listen to the conduct of a devotee of Sri
Rama! The devotee, who, without attachment to sense-
pleasures, seeks Him, becomes a Jivanmukta and enjoys
supreme bliss. Such a devotee should not boast of his having
done japa and tapas; he should not behave or speak like a
hypocrite: should not be weak, fickle-minded and lost in
attachments; should not regard material prosperity as real;
should never make distinction between Siva and Madhava;
should make no profession out of his qualifications; should not
allow the sway of rajas and tamas; should not desist from yogic
practice and should never forget Sri Rama." Similarly real puja
is that which is done, not with a lot of external accessories but
with a complete inner dedication, an internal worship, a bhava-
piija. He says in Paripalaya — Ritigaiila; "My body is your
favourite abode (Puja-griha); my steadfast mind, your golden
throne (cf. also his Manasu nilpa); my meditation of your
beautiful feet is the Ganga-water; my attachment to you is your
beautiful dress; my praise of your glory, your sandal-fragrance;
my remembrance and recital of your Name, the full-blown lotus
for you (cf. his— Namakusumamiilache); the fruits of all my
past misdeeds is the incense to be burnt before you; my devotion
to your feet is the all-day lamp to you; the very fruit of this kind
of superior worship that I do is the food-offering to you; the
lasting bliss that I derive is the pan (Tambula) for you; my
seeing you (Darsana) is the waving of light before you. Mere
scholarship is of no use (Ksi-namai-Miikhari) and faith in
astrology leads one nowhere (Graha-balanieim-Revagupti). Real
Bhakti alone saves and nothing else can be a substitute for it.
Genuine devotion is the great royal road (Chakkani rajamurga-

'See my The Great Integrators - Saint-Singers of India, Publications Division,
Government of India

COMPOSERS

Kharaharapriyaf. In many of these songs in which he exposes
the prevailing shams and hypocricies and emphasises the
essential things as against the accessories, Tyagaraja's literary
gifts, imagination, ability to develop an idea and stringing
similes and gift for wit and satire come out prominently.

Tyagaraja is also remarkable for a good number of songs in
which he has expatiated on Nadopasana, on the art of music as
an aid to devotion and contemplation, on God being the
embodiment ofNada, and the absorption in the joy of melody as
itself constituting spiritual liberation, Moksha. In the exhorta¬
tions in his songs, he holds up this high spiritual ideal for the
musicians and condemns music devoid of devotion. For
exam pie, Sangitagnan iiin u-Dhanyas i, Nadatan um-Chittranjani,
Gitarthamu-Surati, Nadopasanache-Begada, Nadaloludai-

Kalyanavasanta, Mokshamiigalada-Saramati; Svara-raga-
sudharasa — Sankarabharana. In Nadatanum, he describes Siva
as the embodiment of Nada, as constituting the essence of
Samaveda and as delighting in the seven Svaras born of His own
five faces. In Nadasudharasambilanu in Arabhi. he similarly
portrays Rama as the ambrosial Rasa ofNada itself taken human
form. "Devotion associated with the nectar of Svara and Raga is
verily paradise and salvation." he declares in his well-known
song in Sankarabharana, Svara-ragasudharasa. The burden of
another well-known song, in Dhanyasi, is "Knowledge of music
without Bhakti will not lead to salvation." A third well-known
piece, Mokshamugalada in Saramati, shows the idea that
Realisation and Release (Sakshatkara and Moksha) are not
possible for those who are devoid of knowledge of music
coupled with true devotion to the Lord; and the seven notes of
music are manifested out of the Nada of the mystic syllable OM.
"The joy of music is itself the bliss of the Brahman that the
Vedanta speaks of," declares Tyagaraja in three songs: "O Mind!
drink and delight in the immortal elixir of melody and attain the
fruit of Yaga, Yoga, Tyaga and Bhoga; those who understand
that Nada, Omkara and Svara are nothing but Siva; are verily

For more examples and fuller treatment of this aspeet, see Ch. IV on
Reformist Zeal in my Introductory Thesis, Spiritual Heritage of Tyagaraja, pp.
84-108, second edition.

TYAGARAJA

Jivanmuktas, those who have realised liberation here itself."
(Ragasudharasa-Andolika). "O Mind! He who delights in Nada
attains the bliss of Brahman." (Nadaloludai-Kalyanavasanta).
"The body that does not float on the ocean of the ineffable bliss
of Brahman called music is a burden to the earth."
(Anandasagara- Garudadhvan i ).

The language of Tyagaraja's songs is Telugu but an
appreciable number of his songs are wholly in Sanskrit.’ The
Telugu of Tyagaraja is also full of Sanskrit. He has composed a
prose piece (Churnika) to be sung, which is also wholly in
Sanskrit. His Sanskrit, like his Telugu, is marked by felicity. He
is usually happy in his Yatis which add an alliterative charm,
e.g. Nidhi-Sannidhi, Vidulakii-kovidulakii, Dantunnikaina-
Vedantunikaina, Dari-Simdari-Tripiirasimdari, Dehi- Vaidehi,
Graha-Anugraha, etc. At times, Tyagaraja shows a wide
vocabulary, uses words in rare meanings, as also rare words for
alliteration, punning and working in conceits and compounds
(Samasas)“. All this shows that he had an adequate grounding in
Sanskrit. His Telugu verses in different metres in his two drama
compositions bear out his grounding in Telugu. This was to be
expected in one of his family background. The material of the
wide subject matter of the Ramayana is well-known to him, his
songs showing his thorough acquaintance with the Valmiki-
Ramayana. He knows also the other Ramayanas in Sanskrit: In
his Isamanohari song Manasa Sri, he refers to chapters 3 and 6
of the Balakanda of the Adhyatma Ramayana. The references in
Srijanaka-tanaye on Sita in Raga Kalakanthi and in the well-
known Kambhoji song Ma Janaki are to the Adbhuta Ramayana.
The Ananda Ramayana is also drawn upon in some pieces, (e.g.
Oka mata — Harikambhoji) and the Bhusundi Ramayana in
Sarasa samadana-KapinarayanC Mention of Valmiki having
been a hunter, of Rama's Name being imparted by Siva to all

‘ See my Sanskrit Compositions of Tyagaraja, 34th Conference Souvenir,
1960 Music Academy, Madras

" For examples see PP. 26-30, my Introductory Thesis, Spiritual Heritage
oflyagaraja.

^ See my Tyagaraja and Ramanayas other than Vaimiki's, Souvenir of the .
48th Conference, 1974, Music Academy, Madras.

COMPOSERS

persons dying in Varanasi, of Rama's greatness being told by
Siva to Parvati, of the Name Rama meaning Supreme Brahman,
of Hanuman under the Parijata tree reading Purana, these and
several other details of this kind show that the whole literature
on the Rama-cult from the Rama Tapini Upanisad to different
Puranic and Samhita texts and the different Ramayanas in
Sanskrit, as well as the version of Tulasidas whom he mentions
and salutes, were quite familiar to Tyagaraja. Similarly, he must
have read the Srimad Bhagavata, the Bible of the Bhakti-marga.
A manuscript of the Telugu Bhagavata of Potana is among the
Tyagaraja manuscripts preserved by the Walajahpet school.
Upanishad Brahmendra's writings on the Lord's Name and its
recitation, the idea that the Name 'Rama' is the vital essence of
the five-lettered Siva-mantra and the eight—syllable Narayana-
mantra—mentioned in his Evarani in Kharaharapriya ,— is
explained in detail by Upanishad Brahmendra in his
UpeyanamavivekaK Composers who were before Tyagaraja who
sang en Rama and doctrines of Bhakti and Nama and on music
as a Sadhana — Annamacharya, Purandaradasa, Ramadasa—
were also part of the heritage reflected in Tyagaraja's songs.
Ramadasa of Bhadrachalam with his Rama-devotion and
suffering stood in a special relation to Tyagaraja and is
mentioned by name by Tyagaraja in his Kirtanas.

We shall now consider how Tyagaraja has constructed his
Kirtanas. As on the musical side he starts on an effective phase
of a Raga in the Pallavi and then unfolds the other phases in the
subsequent parts of the song; on the literary side, in a more
pronounced manner, he gives as the burden of the song (in the
Pallavi) the central idea, expands it to some extent in the
Anupallavi and then elaborates it further in the Charanas or feet
of the song.

See my edition of this text in the Adyar Library series; also pp. 126-7, my
Introductory Thesis, Spiritual Heritage ofTyagaraja-

^ See my Tyagaraja and Annamacharya, and Tyagaraja and Ramadasa in the
Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, XXXIX, PP. I00-I05; I06-II. Also,
my Forerunners of Tyagaraja in Kirtana-Composition, Souvenir of the Rasika
Ranjana Sabha, Calcutta, 1968-69 and pp. 7-8, 40-41, 144 of Introductory
Thesis, Spiritual Heritage of Tyagaraja.

TYAGARAJA

We have space here to give only one illustration, Emi Jesite
nemi — Todi. The burden of the song is the simple and central
statement : "Of what avail is anything that is done by those who
have not been blessed by Rama ?" In the next phase, the
Anupallavi, the people devoid of Rama's grace are identified as
those who are slaves of lust and other passions and incapable of
knowing the commandments of Rama. In the five feet that
follow, the former part of the Pallavi-idea, namely, "the variety
of things that they may do or achieve" are illustratively
elaborated: 1. What if they have houses and other properties ? 2.
What if they perform Yagas, bring up children or, Tyagaraja
adds with a grin, have adopted others' children ? 3. What if they
are women's men ? 4. What if they enjoy large social status and
prominence ? and 5.What if, even in the religious field, they
become big gurus and can impart Mantras ? All this is of little
use if Rama's grace is not there. An example of the song opening
with the central idea in the Pallavi, further explicated in the
Anupallavi and buttressed in the feet by a series of analogies
may also be given.

We may take Telisi Rama in Purnachandrika where we also
have an example of his mastery of language and sense of humor.
The Palaver says; "O Mind, with knowledge and thought of
Rammer, chant Rammer’s name." The next phase Anupallavi
augments the above brief statement with the further
requirements for the proper chanting of Rama's name: "Closing
the gates of the mind and realising the real significance of Rama
as the Redeemer;" In the three feet follow three illustrations of
how one can recite one thing and mean a totally different and
base or despicable thing: 1. Rama (with a long syllable end, and
in feminine gender) would mean an enticing woman whereas
Rama, the correct form uttered with correct knowledge, means
the Supreme Being. 2. Arka is the effulgent God of light, the
Solar Deity, and Arka is also a poisonous plant the Juice of
which blinds one's eyes. 3. Aja is a poor goat as also the great
God of creation. So recite with understanding of the meaning of
what you recite.

COMPOSERS

For play of imagination and poetic fancy,' the foremost
illustration is Vachamagocharame in the rare Raga Kaikavasi.
Tyagaraja paints a miniature here: "Rama's glory is beyond
words; is it possible to describe it? His arrow is such that with it
he struck down Maricha and burnt Subahu. See what he did with
his arrow further! Sita once looked wistfully at the long tail of a
Chamara-deer; understanding her mind's desire, Rama sent an
arrow at the Chamara-deer's tail; the deer wanted to save its tail
and covered it with its head and turned its body, exposing the
body to the arrow rather than its coveted tail, i.e., preferring to
die rather than live without its pride, the tail. Rama was touched
to the quick by the Chamara's reaction and out of compassion
sent a faster arrow at his earlier one and cancelled it." Tyagaraja
must have read the Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa with which all
students start their studies; in X. 67 Kalidasa describes
Dasaratha's hunt and in one of his pen-pictures here presents a
peacock with its beautiful feathers and Dasaratha who is about
to aim his arrow at it, withdraws it as he is reminded of the
tresses of his beloved, bedecked with flowers. Although this, as
also the Raghuvamsa X. 57 might have inspired Tyagaraja, the
miniature as worked out by Tyagaraja is his own.

Wit, proverbs and popular sayings, etc., are a special feature
of the songs of the popular preachers that the saint-singers were.
Tyagaraja's songs have their own quota of these. These serve to
drive home the ideas with force.

As already observed, Tyagaraja belonged to the Bhajana-
sampradaya, which was at its height in the Cauvery delta at that
time. In the Bhajans conducted by groups at homes or in special
halls, Bhajana Mathas, they celebrated special festivals, the
marriage of Rama and Sita or Krishna and Rukmini and held
congregational singing of devotional songs, for all of which a
pattern, paddhati, had evolved, starting with the announcement
of the Lord's arrival (Heccharika), his taking the seat in the court

For several examples of these qualities, see PP. 31-3, my Introductory Thesis,
Spiritual Heritage of Tyagaraja.

TYAGARAJA

hall (Kolu), the marriage which includes Gauri Kalyanam or the
actual marriage, Nalangu or the divine couple in play, Harati or
waving of light, Lali or enjoying the swing; laying the Lord to
bed (Pavvalimpu) and the waking Him up next morning
(Suprabhatam song). For use in the Puja of the Deity, as part of
such celebrations, there were songs for the offering of the
different Upacharas to the Deity. A set of songs was composed
by Tyagaraja for use in such congregations and festivals. These
songs, called Utsava-sampradaya-kirtanas numbering about
twenty-seven, are simpler in setting but rich in ideas and literary
quality. Of the same type and for similar congregational singing
by devotees, Tyagaraja composed many other songs, about
seventy-eight in number, which go by the name Divya-nama-
samkirtanas. Many songs from these two groups figure now in
concerts where musicians render them’in the closing part of their
performances.

Tyagaraja produced also two sustained story-compositions,
presented in the form of a drama. In Tyagaraja's time,
Bhagavatas had dramatic performances on devotional stories
from the Puranas, written by distinguished composers and sung
and danced before the temples in the villages on occasions of
festivals-. Merattur Venkatarama Sastri was an outstanding
composer of such Bhagavata plays. Tyagaraja must have
emulated the example of this elder contemporary of his and
others of an earlier age, when he composed these two plays of
his. There is, however, no tradition of these two plays of
Tyagaraja having been played at any time. In modern concerts,
pieces from these are sung in concerts, several especially from
the Prahlada-bhakti-vijaya.

The Prahlada-bhakti-vijaya, the longer composition, takes up
the Puranic story of the boy-devotee, Prahlada, son of demon
Hiranyakasipu, the enemy of Hari and of Hari incarnating as
half-lion and half-man (Nara-simha) and putting an end to the
demon. This story is the sermon par excellence of the Bhakti
tradition. Merattur Venkatarama Sastri's play on this story is a
famous one, regularly enacted in some of the villages round
Tanjavur; but Tyagaraja took his own line in handling this story.
As is clear from the title, the play brings out the greatness of the

COMPOSERS

devotion of Prahlada. Tyagaraja follows the Visnu Puruna
version of Prahlada's story rather than the well-known version in
the Bhagavata Ptirana. Visnu as the Man-Lion God is not
brought in by Tyagaraja, nor any confrontation between Him
and Hiranyakasipu. In fact, even Hiranyakasipu is not brought
in person. The play is taken up in its five Acts with the devotion
of Prahlada, the tortures he is made to undergo by his demon-
father, the long exchanges of love and devotion between
Prahlada and Hari, Hari protecting Prahlada, Prahlada having
finally the Lord's Darsana and company and the prayers of the
Gods to Lord Visnu. There are forty-five songs in twenty-eight
Ragas of which no less than thirteen are repeated an-numerous
interlinking passages, in verses in Telugu metres Kandapadya,
Seesapadya, Dvipadi, Utpalamala and Champakamala, prose
and stray Sanskrit verses. The play is set Just like other
Bhagavata plays.

The Nauka-charitra, as the name means, is Lord Krishna
enjoying a boating trip on the river Yamuna in the company of
the Gopis. The Gopis feel exhilarated with the pride of their
beauty and their enjoyment of the love of the Lord. To bring
down their pride, the Lord calls up a storm, makes a hole appear
in the boat and water gush in. The Gopis lament and the Lord
asks them to remove their clothes and plug the hole with them.
After a time, when they surrender themselves completely to the
Lord and their pride disappears, the Lord call off the storm, etc.
Compositions on this theme of Nauka-vilas or Tarani-vihara are
common in the devotional writings of Bengal and this tradition,
as well as the familiar Vastra-paharana and Rasalila episodes in
the Bhagavata, were used by Tyagaraja for this play. In addition
to the Telugu meters used in the Prahlada-play, Tyagaraja uses
here the Sanskrit Sardula-vikridita often. There are twenty-one
songs, in thirteen Ragas, four Ragas being repeated. Shorter and
more compact than the play on Prahlada, the Nauka-charitra,
which lends itself to an effective production as a dance-drama, is
a brilliant achievement of Tyagaraja's genius.

Tyagaraja was steeped as much in the music heritage as in the
heritage of Rama-bhakti. In the beginning of his Prahlada-
bhakti-vijaya, he salutes the saint-singers and musician-

TYAGARAJA

devotees, Jayadeva, the Maharashtra saints Namadeva,
Jnanadeva and Tukaram, then Tiilasidas and then nearer home
Piirandaradasa, Bhadrachala Ramadasa and Narayana Tirtha. On
the theoretical side of music, in his Vidulaku-Mayamalavagaula,
his song of salutation to the learned writers and teachers of the
past with whom Sanskrit texts on music are associated, he
mentions Bharata, Kasyapa, Nandikesvara, Anjaneya, Agastya,
Tumburu, Somesvara and Sarangadeva. Some expressions of the
last-mentioned writer in his Sangi taratnakara are also
incorporated by Tyagaraja in one of his songs (Nadatanum-
Chittcnxmjani). He also refers to a specific text on music written
as a dialogue between Siva and Parvati in the concluding part of
the song on music, Svararagasiidhiirasa in Sankarabharana.

Tyagaraja's chief contribution to Karnataka music is the
perfection of the composition form called Kriti or Kirtana which
was evolving at this time out of the older Prabandha and the
immediate predecessor Pada and which comprised in itself all
the aspects of music and displaced earlier and more ponderous
media of rendering or preserving the Ragas in unbound or bound
forms. In one of his Kritis, he describes what a Kriti should be
like in form and content. In this song sogasuga in Sriranjani he
says that the Kriti should be couched in words conveying the
true spirit of the Upanishads, should have correctness of the
musical notes of the Ragas in which they are set, should be
marked by beauties of alliterations and successive increases and
decreases of notes or syllables, should conduce to the cultivation
of true devotion and dispassion and as literary expression, they
should possess grace and simplicity and embody all the nine
Rasas. He had distinguished contemporaries specialising in the
same line—Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri, but he
excelled them by the all-round excellence of his creations.

Tyagaraja appeared at the crest of an upsurge of musical
activity, in both theory and practice. The momentum had been
set by Venkatamakhin of the closing part of the 17th century,
the period of the last of the Nayak rulers of Tanjavur,

. Vijayaraghava. His formulation of the seventy-two Mela scheme
was an event of the first order of importance. The advent of the
Mahratta rulers brought new currents with the votaries of North

COMPOSERS

Indian music that came. Kings Shahaji and Tulaja, particularly
the latter, knew Venkatamakhin's scheme but did not adopt it
wholly. It was the Dikshitars-Ramaswami Dikshitar and his son
Muthuswami Dikshitar, who took up the Venkatamakhin-thread
from Muddu Venkatamakhin of Shahaji's time and gave the
Venkatamakhin-scheme life and blood by composing songs in
all its Melas (parent modes) and also in most of the derived
Ragas (Janyas). But there was evidently a different scheme
favoured at that time by the Telugu musicians, which came to be
adopted in the compositions by Tyagaraja. And Tyagaraja's
Kritis it was that made this alternate Mela scheme (Kanakangi,
Ratnangi, etc.) stabilised and enduring to this day.

Tyagaraja's contribution on the musical side comprises also
new Ragas, e.g. Kharaharapriya and Harikambhoji in which he
gave a good number of Kritis and numerous others of which the
single pieces of his are our only guide as to their forms. Not a
few of these appear to be his own inventions. The names even of
many of these were not known and strangely manuscripts
masked their names by changing their syllabic order! In the
scheme of seventy-two Melas, some are vitiated by the
occurrence of the dissonant note, Vivadi-svara. Some critics in
the South and most musicians and musicologists of the North
discountenance the Vivadi-mela Ragas.

Even among old Ragas sung often and for long, there are at
least two beautiful Ragas of this vivadi type. When giving the
ten or more 'laksanas' of Ragas or points for developing Ragas,
the texts give guidance for dealing with such cases, by
bypassing (langhana) the concerned note or by taking it with
Gamaka. One of the chief points in Tyagaraja's achievement as a
composer is the artistic skill with which he has handled in his
compositions the Ragas of this class, and imparted to them a
form and appeal. But beyond doubt and controversy is
Tyagaraja's expositions of the major and well-known Ragas of
great standing, as also those that came, comparatively speaking,
to prominence in more recent times. In Ragas where he has
several pieces, he took off the Raga each time in a different
appropriate starting note (graha-svara). On the whole Tyagaraja
has handled in his Kritis about two hundred Ragas, and about

TYAGARAJA

fifty Melas under which they come. Melas under which he has
the largest number of songs are also the most common ones,
Todi, Mayamala-vagaula, Bhairavi, Kharaharapriya,
Harikambhoji, Sankarabharana and Kalyani. Sankarabharana,
among the oldest Ragas, naturally leads with the largest number
of pieces, nearing thirty; among Ragas, which came into vogue
in the 18th-19th centuries, Todi and Kalyani lead with about
twenty-six and twenty pieces; the next order of frequency
among the older Ragas is: Saurashtra (20), Saveri (19), Bhairavi
(18), Arabhi and Madhyamavati (both 15), Varali and
Pantuvarali (both 15), Athana and Devagandhari (both 13),
Kedaragaula, Punnagavarali and Mohana (each 11), Ritigaula,
Yadukula Kambhoji. Sahana and Begada (each 10), Asaveri,
Bilahari and Ghanta (the last remarkable) (each 9), Surati and
Mukhari (both 8), Dhanyasi, Saranga and Balahamsa (7),
Kambhoji, Nilambari and Huseni (6), Gaulipantu and Sriranjam
(5), Mayamalavagaula (4) and Sri (3). Those with two or only
one piece are not analysed here. In the two Ragas, which he
brought into prominence, Kharaharapriya has 13 songs and
Harikambhoji, 9. The two newcomers Kapi and Darbar (not free
from controversy) have twelve and ten pieces.

The most remarkable feature of Tyagaraja's compositions is
the 'variations' or Sangatis which they embody in the very
opening of the Pallavi. These Sangatis synthesise, so to say, the
bound and unbound forms by providing for improvisation within
the framework of a fixed tune and setting. This Tyagaraja picked
up doubt from Pallavi-singing on the one hand and from the
improvisations in dance-music on the other where variations are
done for abhinaya to bring out of different phases of the basic
feeling. By grafting it on to his Kritis, Tyagaraja gave scope for
the singer to bring out not only the total phases of the Raga of
the song but also the emotional phases of the meaning of the
prominent idea of the text of the song as given in the Pallavi.

Some well-known and oft-sung masterpieces of his, which
open with this cascade of Sangatis may be recalled: Sakkani raja
marga, Rama ni samana, 0 Rangasayi, Na jivadhara. But the
Sangatis form a part of all his songs, so much so that they have
come to stay as part of Karnataka music itself and even the

COMPOSERS

Kritis of other masters like Dikshitar which belong to a different
style and aesthetics are rendered by musicians in the same
'sangatised' style.

Although Tyagaraja has some songs in the slow tempo, the
medium one is his chief characteristic tempo. The medium
tempo (Madhyama-kala) is also an adjunct of this Sangati-style
and that tempo has also become the prevailing one for
Karnataka singing and even Dikshitar's music which is in the
Vainika style in slow tempo, with Gamakas as its life, is also
spurred up to the middle and fast tempo. In fact, all Kriti-
composition of the post-TyagaraJa composers, like Pattanam
Subrahmanya Iyer, is after Tyagaraja's model. Thus, as in the
case of Kalidasa, we may say of Tyagaraja too: "All that was
before him was thrown into the-background; all that came after
him has been on his model."

According to tradition, Tyagaraja is said to have composed
several thousands of songs but this is, as usual, an exaggeration.
What we have is less than a thousand; actually about six
hundred and seventy five are known with text and tune. Among
these, from the purely musical aspect, we have different degrees
of artistic aim or elaboration or excellence displayed. Reference
has been made to the class of songs intended for congregational
singing, in which the text dominates and the musical setting is
simpler.

There are other pieces, most of them small, falling often in
prosodic rhythmical patterns, which even youngsters, can sing.
There are other short pieces which are quite lively but not
overlaid with or providing scope for elaboration, which a clever
and mindful performing artist uses in his concert, in between
heavy or long drawn songs, to 'ginger' up his performance. On
top are the Kritis in which words are few and just over two
words of the text like koluvaiyimifade, the whole melody of
Bhairavi could be poured and poured! Here is the forte of
Tyagaraja.

Special reference should be made to five long compositions
of Tyagaraja in the five Ghana Ragas used traditionally for
Tana— (Nata, Gaula, Arabhi, Sri, Varali), which have attained

TYAGARAJA

some special status as the 'five gems'—Pancha Ratnas.
Structurally they are distinct. They are like the Svarajatis, with a
series of passages of alternating Svaras and Sahitya with a
secondary Pallavi as in Varnas.

It is said that Tyagaraja composed these diverse kinds of
songs to suit the pupils who came, with differing qualities of
voice and equipment. Whether that is so or not, the variety that
his compositions show is there and this invests his creative work
with all-round brilliance.

Despite his detractors already referred to, Tyagaraja's
compositions attracted wide attention and spread to distant
places. Tyagaraja undertook some pilgrimages, although not on
the scale and with such avowed purpose as Muthuswami
Dikshitar did. Except the invitation to come to Kanchi from
Upanishad Brahmendra, there is no other evidence to show why
he started on the pilgrimage. We do not know at what age he
started out but if we can infer from his Todi song Dasarathi, this
must have come some time in the late middle stage of his life.
For Tyagaraja thanks Rama in this song for his having spread
his (Tyagaraja's) songs and fame in distant parts. The itinerary
took him to Tirupati, Tiruvottiyur near Madras, Kovur, another
small place in the neighbourhood of Madras where Sundaresa
Mudaliar of that place received Tyagaraja, and Kanchi, in the
northern parts of Tamil Nadu; and in his own Choladesa, he
visited Sirkali, Nagapattinam, Lalgudi near Tiruchi, and
Srirangam. There are about forty songs of Tyagaraja on the
‘ deities in the shrines in all these places, some of which are
famous and popular in concerts.

In the Todi song mentioned above, Tyagaraja gives
expression to his gratification that in his own lifetime and with
his own eyes and ears he enjoyed to his satisfaction the
appreciation that his songs had gained in distant parts of the
country. Tyagaraja realised the aim, ambition and mission of his
life. In his Epaniko (Asaveri), he speaks of the purpose for
which he was bom, namely, to sing of Rama; and in Daya
chuchutaku (Ganavaridhi), he again gives vent to his joy that he
had carried out with care and to his heart's content the mission
that the Lord has entrusted to him. It is not possible for all artists

COMPOSERS

to achieve this satisfaction during their lifetime. In keeping with
his advaitic tradition and following several of his predecessors
who illumined, in his part of the country, the three paths of
Advaitic Jnana, Bhakti and music—^Narayana Tirtha, Sadasiva
Brahmendra, his elder contemporary Upanishad Brahmendra
and his own teacher Ramakrishnananda, Tyagaraja took to
Sannyasa towards the end of his life. In two of his songs
(Giripai in Sahana and Paritapamii in Manohari), he refers to
Rama's promise to him to bestow Moksa on him.

His Sannyasa is certainly one of the elements that added to
the halo of his personality and responsible for the annual
observance of the day of his Samadhi. Tyagaraja attained
Samadhi on January 6, 1847 (Pusya Bahula Panchami). At his
Samadhi in Tiruvayyaru where a shrine has been built by his
devotees, his anniversary is a sacred day for all musicians who
make their pilgrimage every year to this place and pay their
homage to the master by singing his songs there. In fact, there
are several ardent followers of his, who observe his day,
wherever they are, every month on this fifth day of the dark fort¬
night (Bahula Panchami) on which he passed away, assemble
and sing his songs before his portrait.

Through his direct disciples, three schools, traditions or styles
of rendering his Kritis established were the Umayalpuram
school which is the best and most widely represented, the
Tillaisthanam school and the Walajahpet school. The last-
mentioned played a part on the eve and the turn of the present
century in bringing to light Tyagaraja's compositions and
leading to their increasing vogue in the concerts. But for the
emergence of Tyagaraja, and along with him, of his two
contemporaries, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri,
Karnataka musical heritage might not have been consolidated in
the recent past and handed down to us. Taking their stand on the
tradition, these men of genius saw into the future, and therefore,
although two centuries have rolled by since Tyagaraja appeared,
he continues to be, to this day, the mainstay of Karnataka music.
The 'Dura-desa' (distant parts of the country) where, according
^o4iis own song (Dasarathi in Todi), his music has been made
famous, is today a continuously expanding world.

MAHARAJA SVATI TIRUNAL

S. Venkitasiibramonia Iyer

Svati Tirunal of Kerala was composer par excellence of
Karnataka music. The richness and variety of his compositions,
their poetic beauty and devotional fervour and the wide range of
aesthetic patterns they present, entitle him to an exalted place
among the composers of India.

He was born in Trivandrum on April 16,1813, to Rani
Lakshmi Bai and Rajaraja-Varma Koil Tampuran, of the royal
family of Travancore, renowned for its scholarship and patronage
of arts and letters. As there was no male heir to the throne at that
time, he was acclaimed as Garbhasriman, a king even before birth.
He was named Rama Varma and had the hereditary title
'Kulasekhara', but is popularly known as 'Svati Tirunal' after the
asterism under which he was born, in accordance with the practice
prevalent in the royal families of Kerala. He lost his mother quite
early in life, but under the affectionate care of his maternal aunt
Rani Parvati Bai who acted as his Regent, and the guidance of his
saintly father he grew up into an ideal prince.

A liberal education was imparted to him by a team of able
scholars led by the versatile Subba Rao of Tanjavur, who later
became the dewan of the state. Subba Rao was proficient in music
and its different styles and this led to the efflorescence of the
latent musical talent in his royal disciple in due course.
Kseerabdhi Sastri, a famous Advaita scholar of the time, initiated
the prince into the study of philosophy.

Svati Tirunal formally assumed charge of direct administration
on April 21, 1829 and ruled the state for seventeen years, putting
down corruption with an iron hand and introducing far-reaching

COMPOSERS

reforms for the advancement of the people at large. His reign was
marked by all-round progress and it laid the foundations for Tra-
vancore to be a model state. Munsiffs courts were established, a
Code of Regulations was framed, a revenue survey and settlement
of lands was undertaken, a census of the people of the state was
conducted, an observatory was erected, a separate Department of
Public Works was organised, the allopathic system of medical
treatment was introduced, and above all, realising the value of the
English language and the wealth it has got to offer to modern
knowledge, an English school and a public library were started.
Arts and literature were greatly encouraged and artists and poets
rewarded with munificence unparalleled at that time. The state
was prosperous and the people contented and happy.

But towards the close of his life, the Maharaja was not so
happy. The British Crown had recognised him as a sagacious ruler
and appreciated his progressive measures but General Cullen who
became resident of the state in 1840 developed a hostile attitude
towards him and began to interfere in the administration. Deaf in
ear and blind in spirit, the General could not see eye to eye with
the Maharaja, particularly with regard to the expenditure incurred
in fostering fine arts, and he started sending adverse reports to the
British Government. Svati Tirunal had the courage to show him
his place, but the remonstrance was not of much real avail.
Thereupon he surrendered himself at the feet of Lord
Padmanabha, his tutelary deity, and led the rest of his short life in
prayer and meditation, practically detached from the world. He
left the mortal coil on December 25, 1846.

Needless to say, it is as a composer of classical music that
posterity cherishes most the memory of Svati Tirunal. This is due
to the enormous quantity and the high quality of his musical
output. But before turning our attention to this rich treasure, it is
necessary to examine the factors that revealed his musical genius
and moulded its manifold expression.

There were several musicians, and some composers too, in the
Travancore court, many of them adept in the sopana style of
singing, characteristic of Kerala. Irayimman Tampi, the celebrated
author of the beautiful lullaby Omanattinkalkitavo, sung in
spontaneous expression of the joy at the birth of his patron-prince,

MAHARAJA SVATl TIRUNAL

was one among them. His songs, which are of considerable
literary charm, always delighted the young prince. Karamana
Padmanabha Bhagavatar was another. From him he learnt the
early lessons in music. But, as stated before, his keen aptitude for
music was largely roused by Subba Rao. He learnt the North
Indian instrument Svarabat from Subba Rao himself and mastered
the Karnataka and Hindustani systems of music from experts
invited over at his instance.

Soon creative skill began to manifest itself He came to hear
the kirtanas of Margadarsi Sesha Ayyangar. Their devotional
content and the musical structure with a pallavi, an anupallavi and
three or more charanas, attracted him. The Sanskrit language in
which they are written and the literary embellishments they bristle
with, added to the attraction. Taking them as his model, he began
to compose kirtanas; and based on the principles of alliteration
and rhyme found in them, he wrote a tract in Sanskrit named
Miihanaprasadivyavastha.

The great wandering musician of Kerala, Satkala Govinda
Marar, whose performance before Tyagaraja is believed to have
inspired the saint to compose his Pancharatnakriti Endaro
mahanuhhavulu was in the court of Svati Tirunal for some time.
He had a repertoire of Tyagaraja's songs. Their scintillating
beauty kindled in the Maharaja's mind the desire to invite the
musician-saint to his court and pay him homage. His attempt at
this did not prove fruitful, but a disciple of that great composer,
Kannayya Bhagavatar, came and settled in Trivandrum and
delighted the king with his master's songs.

The death of the distinguished patron of arts. King Sarabhoji
of Tanjavur in 1832, made many of the musicians in his court
seek the patronage of his worthy compeer in Trivandrum, some of
them voluntarily and others on the persuasion of persons like
Subba Rao. Among them were the famous Vadivelu and his
brothers known as the 'Tanjore Quartet', who influenced the
Maharaja a great deal in his musical activity in form and
technique. Vadivelu was a disciple of Muthuswami Dikshitar and
with him came to Travancore the majestic songs of this masterly
composer in Sanskrit language. He was a reputed dance-master
also and through him were brought several dancers and dance-

COMPOSERS

troupes from Tanjavur. This gave Svati Tirunal the incentive to
compose the forms of dance music like Varnas, Padas, Svarajatis
and Tillanas, some of them with the collaboration of the Quartet.
The Western instrument violin, pioneered into Karnataka music
by Vadivelu, gained easy recognition as a conceit instrument in
the royal court and brought him the present of a beautiful ivory
violin from the Maharaja.

A Maratha saint-singer named Anantapadmanabhagosvami
alias Merusvami and called Kokilakantha because of his sweet
and high-pitched voice, came to Trivandrum in 1836. He was a
votary of nadavidya and an expert performer of
harikathakalaksepa. Svati Tirunal accepted him as guru and got
himself initiated into the secrets of higher music. Under his
influence he also composed the Kuchelopakhyana and the
Ajamilopakhyana, both of them in the Sanskrit language but in
Marathi forms and tunes according to the Harikatha style.

The liberal patronage which music enjoyed in the Travancore
court attracted many Hindustani musicians and dancers. The
impressionable mind of Svati Tirunal imbibed the excellences of
the Hindustani system and attempted compositions in that also.

All this resulted in his vast and varied contribution which,
while bearing testimony to these influences, bears also the stamp
of his individuality. The known compositions of Svati Tirunal
number about 400 and comprise practically all the forms of
Karnataka and Hindustani music. They are found in five
languages: Sanskrit, Malayalam, Hindustani, Telugu and
Kannada. They are all devotional in nature and almost all of them
have his mudra Padmanabha, sometimes with the part padma
substituted by a synonym. Most of them are in well-known ragas,
but we also find rare ragas like Gopikavasantam, Suddhabhairavi,
Purvakambhoji and Lalita-panchamam. North Indian ragas like
Khamas, Bihag, Hamir-kalyani, and Kapi are also found freely
adopted. The talas used are the common Adi, Chapu, Rupaka, etc.
Some of these songs preserve certain rare prayogas of particular
ragas.

Among the Karnataka types it is the kirtana that is the largest
in number. Svati Tirunal's kirtanas cover a wide range from very

MAHARAJA SVATI TIRUNAL

simple kirtanas like Paripahi ganadhipa in Saveri to Rasa-vilasa
in Kambhoji with its lofty flow and intricacies of chittasvara
interspersed with jati. They comprise pieces in fast tempo like
Sara-saksa in Pantuvarali as well as pieces in slow tempo like
Jagadisa sada in Natakiirinji. They are in praise of different
deities, mainly Padmanabha. A group of nine kirtanas called
Navaratnamalika expound the nine-fold path of bhakti, and
another similar group called Navaratrikirtanas contain nine songs,
six on Sarasvati and three on Durga, to be sung during the annual
Navaratri festival. There are some songs like Karanam vina
karyam in Kambhoji and Smara haripadaravindam in Sama which
are in a philosophical vein. Bhavayami Raghiiramam in Saveri,
which is of late being rendered as a ragamalika, is an epitome of
the Ramayana, and Bhavaye Srigopalam in Punnagavarali, that of
the Bhagavata.

As a composer of Varnas, Svati Tirunal is unrivalled. He has
to his credit about 30 of them, a noteworthy achievement when
we consider the abundance of imagination and the mastery of
melodic nuances which each one of them demands. They
comprise tana-varnas as well as chowka-varnas and stava-varnas
as well as pada-varnas. Some of them like Chalamela in
Sankarabharanam and Sarasijanabha in Kambhoji, both in the
stately Ata tala, are among his masterpieces and are perfect
specimens of this musical form. The varna Sumasayaka in Kapi
presents certain innovations like sangatis or progressive variations
in the pallavi and the form of a ragamala in the last charana.
These varnas have always been popular in Bharatanatya. To the
class Pada he has contributed over 70 songs. Being primarily
meant for abhinaya they beautifully portray the different aspects
of sringara or love in all its delicate shades clothed in appropriate
ragas to delineate the particular ideas and emotions. Alar-
saraparitapam in Surati, Sakhi he ni gamikka in Sankarabharanam,
Kantanotu channu in Nilambari are a few of the most popular
padas. Svarajatis and Tillana are also essentially dance-forms of
music, and they generally pertain to nritta or general dance as
distinguished from abhinaya. Svati Tirunal has composed several
of these and among them the Panchoragaswrajati beginning with
Sa Ni Sa Re Sa in Kalyani raga is well known.

COMPOSERS

Among Prabandhas (sustained musical story poems), besides
the Kuchelopakhyana and Ajamilopukhyana mentioned earlier,
we get Utsavaprabandha written in Malayalam in song mixed with
verse, describing the festivals in the Sripadmanabhasvami temple
in Trivandrum.

The musical type called Ragamalika with its characteristic
sectional chittasvara and concluding viloma-chittasvara, also has
its contribution from him. The two pieces Pannagendrasayana and
Kamalajasyahrita are well known. The one is a pada in theme and
the other, a kirtana. The first is particularly noteworthy. In eight
sections it delineates the feelings of a love-lorn lady awaiting her
lord in the different parts of night in appropriate ragas beginning
with Sankarabharanam, the raga of nightfall, and ending in
Rhupala, the raga of daybreak.

Svati Tirunal was the first South Indian composer to contribute
to file Hindustani system. There are about 40 songs of his in this
category and we get among them Dhrupad, Khayal and other
forms including a ragamala. Ramachandraprabhu in
Sindhubhairavi, Chaliye kunjanano in Vrindavanasaranga, etc.,
are well known.

This royal composer thus made a significant contribution to
both the main streams of Indian music. This is doubtless a unique
achievement. The one was as dear to him as the other. With rare
catholicity of outlook both were accorded equal treatment. His
court musicians represented a cross-section of the whole of India.
Along with Irayimman Tampi of Trivandrum and Paramesvara
Bhagavatar of Palghat, there were among them, in addition to
those mentioned before, Sulaiman Sail of Tanjavur, Gopalarayar
of Madhyarjunam, Matrubhutayya of Tiruchirapalli, Alauddin of
Mysore, Kasiganga of Hyderabad, Sacchidananda of Poona,
Ramarjuna of Punjab, Lakshmanadas of Gwalior, Sukhadev of
Ayodhya, Gaudavasudeva of Banaras, Haridas of Bengal and a
host of others. Without distinction of caste or creed all of them
were encouraged and treated as equals and paid incredibly high
salaries. His court was a demonstration of the truth that music,
and for that matter any genuine art, is unbounded by region or
religion and its vast potentials can make it a powerful force in
national integration.

MAHARAJA SVATl TIRUNAL

Although unlike his contemporary composers like Tyagaraja
and Dikshitar, the Maharaja had no disciples, his songs attained
great popularity as can be seen from their occurrence in several
anthologies of music. The charm of the varnamettu or musical
pattern of some of these compositions inspired duplicate sahityas.
Such for instance are seve syananduresvara by Irayimman Tampi
for Pahi mam sri vageeswari in Kalyani, Sringara lahari by
Mysore Lingaraja for AnandawaUi in Nilambari, Samini
rammanave and Sarasa ninu by the Tanjore quartet' respectively
for Sa vama rusha in Khamas and Sumasayaka in Kapi, and
Pannagadrisa of uncertain authorship for Pannagendrasayana.
The Padmanabhasvami temple largely preserves the original
music of Svati Tirunal.

It was not music alone among the fine arts that was enriched
by the Maharaja by his substantial contribution and unstinted
patronage. The other arts also found a generous patron in him.
Several dance-troupes came to him from all over India and got
presents. Some of them were taken into the permanent service of
the Palace. Painters of all styles were encouraged. A European
artist was paid Rs. 12,000 for a portrait, an astounding sum indeed
in those days. Some families of ivory carvers were settled in
Trivandrum and an artistic ivory throne was made by them. A
beautiful chariot for royal processions was devised and
constructed. Two monuments of architecture, the Puthenmalika
and the Rangavilas Palace, came into being at his instance.

And not only arts. Literature also got its due share from the
scholar-monarch. Like the musicians, poets and scholars from far
and near visited his court and they were all suitably honoured. His
own poetic works like the Padmanabhasataka, Syanan-
durapuravarnanaprabandha and Bhaktimanjari bespeak his
wonderful command of the Sanskrit language and profound
knowledge of our religions and philosophic lore and exemplify his
literary ability.

Svati Tirunal lived but a short life, and it was one full of res¬
ponsibility. Still he was able to serve the muse and serve her in
both her forms, poetry and music. And his achievement is re¬
markable. He has given us a treasure which no rasika can afford to
neglect.

SYAMA SASTRI

P.j Sam bamoorthy

Syama Sastri belongs to the Trinity of South Indian Music, the
other two members of the Trinity being Tyagaraja (1767-1847)
and Muthuswamy Dikshitar (1776-1835). A new chapter in the
history of South Indian Music begins with the Musical Trinity.
Sangita Kavitvam (creative music) reached the acme of perfection
in their hands.

Syama Sastri was born at Tiruvarur (also called Srinagar) in
Tanjavur District in Tamil Nadu on the 26^'^ of April 1762. In the
year 1781, he came to Tanjavur along with his father and settled
down there.

Syama's ancestors were not musicians; nor did they encourage
the study and practice of music in their family. So much so, that
when as a lad he mastered the rudiments of music from his
maternal uncle in a very short time, nobody took any serious
notice of it. No one dreamt that this lad of eighteen was destined
to give to the world those immortal kriti compositions in a style
peculiarly his own. Although he was gifted with a very melodious
voice, the idea of giving a good musical training to him never
occurred to his parents. But Nature plans Her own methods for the
training of Her chosen ones.

Even as the divine minstrel Narada came in the guise of a
sannyasi and initiated Tyagaraja in the mysteries of music by
presenting him with the works Svararnava and Naradiya; even as
a sage in the person of Chidambaranatha Yogi came to
Muthuswamy Dikshitar to inculcate the secrets of true music, so
also a sannyasi in the person of Sangitaswami came to Syama
Sastri, to initiate him into the mysteries of Tala and Raga.

SYAMA SASTRI

Sangitaswami was adept in the art of music and dance. This
Swami was an Andhra Brahmin and in the course of his
pilgrimage came to Tanjavur. Since the Chaturmasya period had
just then commenced, he was obliged to stay in Tanjavur and
spend the period of four months there.

At the invitation of Syama Sastri's father, one day the Swamiji
came to his house and had bhiksha there. After the bhiksha, the
father introduced his son to the distinguished guest. The Swamiji
at a momenfs glance noticed that the young person had rare
musical talents. He immediately predicted the future greatness of
Syama. The father thanked the Swamiji for his kindness in res¬
ponding to his invitation and requested him to bless his son.

From the next day onwards, Sangitaswami bestowed special
attention on the musical training of Syama and taught him the
intricate mysteries underlying the raga and tala prastaras. Having
acquired real scholarship in Telugu and Sanskrit languages under
the able tutelage of his father, and possessing a keen intellect and
a rare capacity to grasp even the most subtle and difficult
branches of the science of music, Syama was just the pupil to
receive instruction in the higher branches of the art from the great
guru, Sangitaswami. He made amazing progress and soon
mastered all the intricacies of the raga, tala and swara prastaras.
The guru in great joy presented him with some rare musical
granthas (works) which were a mine of information on gandharva
vidya.

Towards the close of the Chaturmasya period, the master said
to his pupil:

"My dear Syama, you have learnt enough of the sangita sastra
(theory of music). Now it is time you listened to a lot of good
music. I would particularly suggest that you cultivate the
friendship of Pachchimiriyam Adiyappayya, the Asthana Vidwan
of Tanjavur Samsthanam, and listen to his scholarly music as
often as possible." So saying Sangitaswami blessed his pupil and
resumed his pilgrimage.

According to his guru's advice, Syama Sastri made the acquai¬
ntance of Adiyappayya, who in his time was adored as the king of

musicians.

COMPOSERS

Syama Sastri soon acquired great name and fame as an expert
musician-composer. His scholarly musical compositions,
consisting mostly of kritis and svarajatis, brought on him the war¬
mest encomiums even from the most uncompromising critics of
his time. In the art of manipulating the intricate time measures he
had no equal. He was able to handle the apurva ragas with as
much ease as the more common ones. His first kriti "Janani
Natajana Paripalini Pahi mam Bhavani” (Saveri raga) in Sanskrit
reveals the genius of the rising composer.

Syama Sastri had a majestic appearance and a commanding
personality. He had a fine complexion and always wore a pure
white, slightly lace-bordered cloth. The saffron mark on his
forehead, his Rudraksha Mala mounted in gold round his neck, his
diamond ear-rings, his bright coloured shawl, his silver-mounted
walking stiek, his beautiful slippers all contributed to his im¬
pressive personality. Nobody who saw him even once forgot him.
As he passed along the streets the people seated on the pials of the
houses on both sides got up and paid respects to him. "Truly he is
the king of musicians" exclaimed everyone. Such was the
reverence and regard which one and all had for him. Tyagaraja
and he were good friends.

The historic musical contest between Syama Sastri and Bobbili
Kesavayya in which the former sang a Pallavi in
Sarabhanandanatala as a counter to the Pallavi in Simhanandana
tala sung by Kesavayya, and emerged victorious has been
remembered in tradition. Sarabhanandana tala comes to be known
for the first time through his Pallavi. An avarta of this tala takes
193/4 matras or 79 aksharakalas. The 24 angas figuring in this tala
in their order are: guru, laghu, drutam, laghu, laghu drutam,
anudrutam, laghu viramam, drutam, drutam, drutam, anudrutam,
laghu drutam, laghudruta viramam, laghu viramam, drutam,
anudrutam, drutam, anudrutam, drutam, laghu viramam, drutam,
druta viramam, laghu drutam. There is an appropriateness in
Syama Sastri scoring a victory over Simhanandana tala Pallavi
with his Pallavi in Sarabhanandana. After God Narasimha slew
Hiranya and sucked the blood of the rakshasa. He became furious.
The Devas quaked with fear. Just at that time Paramasiva took the
form of Sarabha, (Bird, animal and human blended into one) and

SYAMA SASTRI

relieved Narasimha of the rakshasa’s blood by sucking it and
restored tranquility to Him and the world.

Syama Sastri was a highly creative artist. His compositions are
of sterling worth. They are in common ragas like Todi, Dhanyasi,
Kambhoji, Yadukulakambhoji, Sankarabharanam and Kalyani and
in uncommon ragas like Kalagada, Karnataka Kapi, Manji and
Chintamani. He has adopted an attractive style in his kritis. His
Sahityas are principally in Telugu and a few are in Sanskrit and
Tamil.

He is the architect of the musical form, Svarajati. This was
originally a dance form but Sastri converted it into an attractive
musical form by eliminating passages of jatis or bols. His three
svarajatis (a) Rave Himagiri-kumari (Todi raga—Adi tala (b)
Kamakshi Anudinamu (Bhairavi raga-Chapu tala) and (c)
Kamakshini Padayugame (Yadukulakambhoji raga-Chapu tala)
stand unparalleled both for the delineation of the raga bhava and
the fecundity of the musical ideas. In the Bhairavi svarajati the
commencing notes of the eight charanas will be found to be in the
ascending order to pitch Sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. He has
incidentally illustrated herein the nature of the arohana sthayi
paddhati of raga alapana. In the Yadukulakambhoji svarajati the
last charana is concluded with a makutam (crown-like ending) of
three phrases of varying magnitude Khandam (5), Misram (7) and
Sankirnam (9) R g S/m g r s n d p/m grsndpmg. This apparently
complex grouping fits 'in very nicely into the texture of the
composition and forms a fitting finale. These three svara-Jatis
form a ratna-traya. (Three gems).

Sastri has given the modern shaping to the Anandabhairavi
raga. Anandabhairavi is an old raga. There are folk melodies and
also lullabies in it. A perusal of the mediaeval compositions in
Anandabhairavi will reveal the fact that many strange phrases
which are now considered taboo, occur in them. The gita "Kamala
Sulochana" contains many archaic prayogas i.e. phrases which
will no more be considered as appropriate and valid in
Anandabhairavi. Bhadrachala Ramadas has also introduced in one
of his songs in Anandabhairavi raga the phrases Sa re ga ma ga re
sa in the tara sthayi. Ramaswami Dikshitar, the father of
Muthuswamy Dikshitar, has introduced the prayoga pa ni sa in the

COMPOSERS

Chittaswara to his kriti "Amba ni Saranamu Jochchiti". Paidala
Giirumurthi Sastri has introduced the phrases P n N S in his gita
Pahi Sri Ramachandra in this raga. Syama Sastri steered clear of
the track and gave the picture of Anandabhairavi as it ought to be.
With the emergence of the raga Abheri, the phrase Pa ni sa has no
place in Anandabhairavi. Syama Sastri's kritis (1) O Jagadamba,
(2) Pahi Sri Giri Raja Sute, (3) Mariveregati and (4)
Himachalatanaya Brochuta and the varna "Samini rammanave,
Sarasakshi I vela" (Ata tala) are splendid compositions in this raga
and mirror the varied and colourful aspects of Anandabhairavi.
Anandabhairavi has been considered as his Sotthu i.e. as his
property. The polished nature of his music is one of the attractive
features of his compositions. Some of his compositions apart from
their high entertainment value, have also a lakshana value. In the
art of composing Swara-sahityas, Sastri stands without a parallel.

He delighted in incorporating rhythmical beauty in his
compositions. There is not even the slightest suggestion of any
artificial element in the introduction of those rhythmical
colourings. The key phrase in the field of rhythm is Ta dhim gi na
Tom a phrase of the magnitude of 5 aksharakalas. The kriti
'Meenalochana Brova' in Dhanyasi raga and which belongs to the
group 'Navarat-namalika' starts after the pause of the duration of
Ta dhim gi iiaTom. This is a very unusual feature in a musical
composition. In his kritis, we find many words constituted of 5
syllables, (answering to Ta dhim gi na torn) coming naturally. As
examples of such words may be mentioned:

(1) Anudinamu (2) Durusuganu (3) Gatiyanuchu

(4) Japamulanu

(7) Krupasalupu

(10) Samayamidi

(13) Pogadutaku
(16) Varamosagu.

(5) Kamalamukhi

(8) Mahimalanu

(11) Sarasamukhi

(14) Padayugamu

(6) Kamalayuga

(9) Mahimavini

(12) Saranamani

(15) Tarunamidi

Syama Sastri has popularised the Viloma (reverse) type of
chapu tala. The normal chapu tala takes the sequence 3 plus 4. His
composition Mari vare gati in Anandabhairavi is in the nonnal

SYAMA SASTRI

chapu tala. The viloma chapu tala takes the sequence 4 plus 3. His
compositions Ninnu vinaga mari in Purvikalyani raga and Triloka
matha nannu in Pharaz raga are very good examples.

He has composed a few kritis which are suggestive of two
rhythms. That means the composition can be reckoned in either of
those two rhythms and without prejudice to musical effect. It is,
however, clear that one of the rhythms was intended as the
inherent rhythm and the other as the suggestive rhythm.

The inherent rhythm is the Sthapita tala and the suggestive
rhythm is the Suchita tala. Taking the composition, Sankari
sankuru in Saveri raga as an example, the Rupaka tala will be the
Sthapita tala of this song and Adi tala (Tisra Gati) will be the
Suchita tala of this song. That the composer intended both these
rhythms is clear from the fact that the Pallavi and Anupallavi
conform to the Rupaka tala on their very face and the charana
conforms to the Adi tala (Tisra Gati) in an equally clear manner.

Atita-anagata complexities are also seen in his kritis. Syama
Sastri had a rhythmical frame of mind and he was always
swimming in the ethereal regions of rhythm and tala prastara. No
other composer has composed songs answering to the rhythmical
beauty referred to above.

Svaraksharas occur in many places in his kritis. Svarakshara is
the beauty signified by the confluence of the svara syllable and
the identical or like-sounding syllable in the sahitya or words of
the song. It is a structural beauty. As examples may be mentioned
the following:

(1) In the kriti Devi brova samayamide in Chintamani raga in

the first charana we find the phrase: Nidasudu gada. Here in

nida is the svarakshara part.

(2) In the Kambhoji kriti Devi ni, in the phrase Pada sarasa,

Pada sa occurs as svarakshara.

Syama Sastri was Devibhakta. The main source of inspiration
to him was Bangaru Kamakshi, the Deity of the Temple in
Tanjore. He has also composed nine kritis in praise of Minakshi,

COMPOSERS

the Deity of the Temple in Madurai. This group is called
Navaratna-malika. The more well known compositions of this
group are :—

Name of the song

Raga

Tala

Sarojadalanetri

S ankarabh ar an am

Adi

Devi Minanetri

-do-

Adi

Nanubrova Lalita

Lalita Misra

Laghu

Minalochana Brova

Dhanyasi

Chapu

Mari Vere gati

Anandabhairavi

-do-

Devi ni pada sarasa

Kambhoji

Adi

Mayammayani

Ahiri

Adi

He signed his compositions with the ankitam Syama Krishna. His
style of musical writing has been compared to the Kadalipaka.

Syama Sastri had two sons: Panju Sastri and Subbaraya Sastri.
Of these, the latter became a fine composer. He had training in
music under his own father and later under the great composer
Tyagaraja. The kritis of Subbaraya Sastri are noted for the
brilliant setting of the Svara sahityas, i.e. chitta svaras with the
addition of appropriate Sahityas. Syama Sastri passed away on
February 6, 1827 in his 65th year.

MUTHUSWAMY DIKSHITAR

T. L Venkatarama Aiyer

South India has a rich heritage of classical music. Many are the
composers who have contributed to it. Of them three are promi¬
nent and are popularly known as the trinity. They are Syama
Sastri, Tyagaraja and Muthuswamy Dikshitar. They were
contemporaries and their period is rightly regarded as the golden
age of classical Karnataka music.

Muthuswamy Dikshitar was born at Tiruvarur in 1775. His
father Ramaswamy Dikshitar was himself an eminent musician
and composer who had undergone training in music under Muthu
Venkatamakhin, a scion of the family of the great
Venkatamakhin, the author of the music treatise Chaturdandi
Prakasika. One of his kritis, the Ragamalika in 108 Ragas and
Talas is unique of its kind and is a masterpiece.

For a long number of years no child was born to Ramaswamy
Dikshitar. It is said that the Devi Balambika to whom he offered
worship and prayed for a son appeared before him in a dream and
presented him with a pearl necklace. Within a year thereafter a
son was born to him and that was Muthuswamy. Muthuswamy
was a precocious boy. He learnt music under his father and
became proficient in both vocal and veena music. He also became
a scholar in Sanskrit.

At this time, the Zamindar of Manali near Madras came to
Tiruvarur on a pilgrimage and was so impressed by the music of
Ramaswamy Dikshitar that he invited him co be his court
musician. Dikshitar agreed and so the family shifted to Manali
and settled down there. During this period the zamindar who was
closely connected with the East India Company, used to take

COMPOSERS

Muthuswamy Dikshitar along with him to the Fort St. George and
there Dikshitar had occasion to listen to Western music played by
the British Band. What use Dikshitar made of it will presently be
seen. While at Manali, one Chidambaranatha Yogin, a Sannyasin
who had initiated Srividya in Ramaswamy Dikshitar came over
there and the latter invited him for Bhiksha. On that occasion
Muthuswamy Dikshitar was asked to sing and play on the Veena
to him. The Swami listened to his music with rapt attention and
was immensely pleased with it. After the Bhiksha was over, the
Yogin told Ramaswamy Dikshitar that he was going on a
pilgrimage to Kasi and that he would like to take Muthuswamy
with him as his Sishya. After a good deal of hesitation
Ramaswamy Dikshitar agreed and sent his son with the Yogin to
Kasi.

In the company of the Yogin, Muthuswamy Dikshitar stayed in
Kasi. During this period the Yogin initiated him to the tantric
form of worship of the Devi and to the practice of yoga, and also
taught him the Upanishads. The songs of Muthuswamy Dikshitar
bear a deep impress of this learning. Apart from this, the stay at
Kasi had also a profound influence on his music. He had
opportunity, there, of listening to and learning Hindustani music
first hand and in its purity; and this knowledge is reflected in the
style and quality of his music. Muthuswamy Dikshitar spent about
six years in Kasi as the Sishya of the Yogin. One day when they
came to the Ganga for bath, the Yogin said to Dikshitar:
"Muthuswamy, get into the Ganga three or four steps down and
tell me what you get." Dikshitar did as directed and to his surprise
he got a Veena with the word Rama inscribed on it. He showed it
to the Yogin who said, "So Ganga has blessed you; you will be a
great Vinita." This Veena is still with the members of his family.
After this, the Yogin got into the water for bath, and did not reap¬
pear. After a fruitless search Muthuswamy Dikshitar realised that
the yogin had attained Mukti. He then returned to the South.

He came to Manali only to find that his parents had left for
Tiruvarur. The idea then struck Dikshitar that he might visit the
shrines in the locality before returning home. He went first to
Tiruttani and there sat before Lord Subrahmanya in contemplation
of His glory and repeating the Shadakshara Mantra. One day at

MUTHUSWAMY DIKSHITAR

noon after all the pilgrims had left, while he was sitting alone, an
elderly man appeared before him and said "Muthuswamy, open
your eyes and tell me who I am". Dikshitar sat merely gazing at
him silently. Then he put something in his mouth and asked him,
"Tell me what it is." Dikshitar said, "Sir, it is sugar candy." But by
then the elderly man had disappeared and instead there appeared
before Dikshitar the vision of Lord Subrahmanya seated on a
peacock with Valli and Devasena by His side and the form
gradually disappeared into the Sanctum sanctorum. Dikshitar con¬
cluded that the old man who had appeared before him was no
other than Lord Subrahmanya and that the Prasadam which He
gave him was Jnana (knowledge). So he hailed him as his Guru
and burst into music in praise of Him. There are eight pieces
which he sang on this occasion. They were his first songs.

From Tiruttani Dikshitar went to Tirupati, Kalahasti,
Kancheepuram, Chidambaram and other holy places, composing
songs in praise of the deities there and then went to his home at
Tiruvarur. There he settled down and lived with his father till
1817, when the latter died. What Muthuswamy Dikshitar saw at
Tiruttani had produced a deep impression on him. Even before
that the training which he had received from Chidambaranatha
Yogin had given him a strong spiritual outlook and a discipline of
mind and body unusual at that age. The vision of the Lord at
Tiruttani made him completely God-minded. Thereafter he always
thought of God, spoke of God, worshipped God. He dedicated his
music to the praise of God. His daily life was simple. He rose in
the early hours and practised yoga and then performed pooja. He
would then visit temples and sing the songs composed by him on
the deities. He would then teach music to his sishyas. In short, he
lived the life of a saint.

Dikshitar was not in affluent circumstances and had often to
struggle against poverty. But he never yielded to the temptation of
singing the praise of men and earning money. Many are the
anecdotes which are related to illustrate this, but it is sufficient to
refer to one of them. While he was at Tanjavur his wife pressed
him to sing the praise of King Serfoji, who was reputed to be a
munificent patron of arts. Dikshitar declined and wrote a kirtana
in which, echoing the sentiments and even the language of the Sri

COMPOSERS

Sukta, he said that he would worship Lakshmi who could give
him imperishable wealth and not seek small men. (Hiranmayam
Lakshmim in Raga Lalita). He sang the kirtana in the
Rajagopalaswarni temple and that very night Lakshmi appeared
before him in a dream and blessed him. This appears in his
kirtana, 'Mangala Devataya" in Raga Dhanyasi.

The fame of Muthuswamy Dikshitar as a great composer soon
spread all around and he received many invitations for visiting the
numerous sacred places in South India. Dikshitar readily
responded to them and travelled far and wide, visiting Famous
shrines and writing songs on the deities there. Indeed his life can
be described as one of life-long pilgrimage to temples. In this
respect he is placed alongside the Saivaite saints who sang the
Tevarams and the Vaishnavaite saints who sang the Prabandhams;
he sang of all the deities, Saivaite and Vaishnavaite, without
distinction. While he was at Tiruvarur, some persons from
Madurai invited him to go over to that place and sing songs on
Meenakshi and teach his kirtanas to the musicians there. Dikshitar
promised to do so later, and on their suggestion he sent his two
younger brothers, Chinnaswamy and Baluswamy, with them to
Madurai to teach his compositions. Dikshitar then left for
Tanjavur. There he spent a number of years in the company of
Syama Sastri. It was during this period that Ponniah, Vadivelu
and then brothers learnt music under him. They became
subsequently famous as court musicians and dance-masters in
Tanjavur and in Trivandrum and as composers.

Muthuswamy Dikshitar then left for Madurai. There he
learnt that one of his brothers, Chinnaswamy, had died and that
the other had left for Rameswaram. Dikshitar spent some months
in Madurai and composed several Kirtanas in praise of Meenakshi
and Sundareswara. Then he started on a journey to Rameswaram
and visited, en route, Azhagar Koil and sang the Kirtana ”Shri
Sundararajam" in praise of the deity there. Then he went to
Rameswaram and there composed songs in praise of Ramanatha
and Parvatavardhini and also visited Darbhasayanam and sang
"Sriramam". At Rameswaram he learnt that his brother
Baluswamy had been there, that the Raja of Ettayapuram who had
come there had liked his music and had taken him along as his

MUTHUSWAMY DIKSHITAR

court musician. So Muthuswamy Dikshitar started on a journey to
Ettayapuram.

It was then midsummer, and Dikshitar had to travel through
dry regions. Feeling thirsty he stopped at the outskirts of a village
and taking rest under a tree, he asked his sishya to go into the
village and fetch drinking water. Shortly thereafter his sishya
returned along with the local magnate, who prostrated before him
and presented him with fruits and drink. Dikshitar asked him
about the famine conditions prevailing there, to which he replied
that the country had been undergoing great sufferings owing to
continuous droughts. Dikshitar immediately went into the temple
in that place and performed Pooja to the Devi and sang a kirtana
'Ananda amrithakarshini' in Raga Amrithavarshini and finished
with an invocation "Varshaya, Varshaya, Varshaya" (Pour rain,
pour rain, pour rain). A miracle happened; clouds gathered and
there were heavy rains which gave relief to the whole locality.

Dikshitar then resumed his Journey to Ettayapuram. The news
of his arrival had preceded him. The enlightened Maharaja was
waiting with his paraphernalia a mile in advance of the town to
give him a fitting reception. Baluswamy Dikshitar, the brother of
Muthuswamy Dikshitar, was seated by the side of the Maharaja.
Dikshitar was overwhelmed with joy at the sight of his brother
and was delighted to know that he was going to be married
shortly. The Maharaja of Ettayapuram, who was himself a
composer of classical music, requested Dikshitar to settle down at
Ettayapuram as his Guru. Dikshitar had an only daughter whom
he had given away in marriage, so he decided to live with his
brother at Ettayapuram. While there, be visited the famous
temples of Subrahmanya at Tiruchendur and at Kazhugumalai and
of Kanthimati and Salvatiswara in Tirunelveli and of Sasta at
Sabarimalai and several other shrines. He wrote kirtanas on the
deities in all these places.

His end came some time in the month of Tula in the year
Manmatha, 1834, September-October. An elephant of the
Ettayapuram Palace called ’Gangeya' became wild and breaking
all fetters, marched to the cremation ground and stood there. The
Maharaja who heard this was alarmed, thinking that it foretold
some calamity. So he straightaway went to Muthuswamy

COMPOSERS

Dikshitar and relating to him what had happened, asked for his
blessings. Dikshitar went into contemplation and in the Samadhi
had a vision of Annapurneswari of Kasi. He remembered what
Chidambaranatha Yogin had told him, that She would give Mukti
to him and so concluded that his end was near. He opened his
eyes and told the Maharaja: "Maharaja, no harm will come to
you." Then the Maharaja asked: "Will any harm come to my
Kingdom ?” "No", said Dikshitar. The Maharaja went away in
great delight. Then Dikshitar performed Pooja as usual and
thereafter the sishyas assembled and began to sing. He asked them
to sing the piece "Meenakshi me mudam". After they had
finished, he told them: "Sing it again. It looks as if the Devi will
give me Mukti." They sang again and when they were singing
"Meenalochani Pasamochani" in the Anupallavi, he quietly
shuffled off his mortal coil. The royal elephant also then left the
cremation ground. The Maharaja who heard the news returned
sorrow-stricken, and paid his last homage to him and had him
cremated at a place specially chosen. His Samadhi can be seen at
Ettayapuram even today. That, in brief, is the life-story of
Muthuswamy Dikshitar.

Turning now to the music of Muthuswamy Dikshitar, the most
outstanding quality is its richness of Raga Bhava. It is this that
gives him a place among the great composers of India. It should
be noted that the concept of Raga is the most distinctive
contribution of India to the world of music. Beautiful songs are to
be found all the world over but the notion of Raga as distinct from
a song is distinctly Indian. "Raga" is a sound picture, a melody,
which has distinctive features differentiating one from other
melodies. Those who are brought up in the tradition can
distinguish one melody from another as easily as they can one
person from another. Indeed our tradition considers Ragas as
divine personalities.

Tyagaraja describes Nada as the body of Lord Siva.
Muthuswamy Dikshitar describes Devi as of the form of the
twenty-two Srutis and Swaras. The featuring of Raga, Raga
Alapa, has always been considered to be the highest form of art
music. It transcends words and consists of Akara-sounds and
when syllables are used in the rendering of Ragas, they are non-

MUTHUSWAMY DIKSHITAR

significant and serve only as aids in portraying the Raga. Now the
greatest merit of the songs of Dikshitar is the featuring of the
Raga-forms in all their purity and richness.

Dikshitar shares with Tyagaraja the distinction of having
handled the largest number of Ragas. In familiar Ragas like Todi,
Bhairavi, Sankarabharana, Kalyani and Kambhoji, he has, like
Tyagaraja, composed a number of songs bringing out the beauty
of the Ragas in all their aspects. Then there are certain rare Ragas
for which we get a complete picture in the kirtanas of Dikshitar.
Such are, for example, Mangalakaisiki, Ghanta, Gopikavasanta,
Narayana-Gaula and others. Then again there are many Ragas
which live only in the kritis of Dikshitar, as for example,
Chayagaula, Poorvi, Padi, Madhuri, Sudha Vasanta, Kumudakriya
and others. Dikshitar has composed kirtanas in all the 72 Mela
Ragas and what is of special interest in them is that in rendering
the Vivadi Melas he has, following the Gitas of Venkatamakhin,
avoided Sam-purna scales in Arohana and Avarohana, and has
thus avoided dissonant and discordant Sancharas. As examples,
the kirtana in Kanakambari in the first Mela and Kalavati in the
thirty-first Mela, might be mentioned.

In appreciating the music of Dikshitar it should be
remembered that he was primarily a Vainika and vocal music was
rendered only to the accompaniment of Veena. To this must be
ascribed two of the distinctive features of Dikshitar's music:
firstly his songs are mostly in Vilambakala (slow tempo) with a
few Madhyamakala Sancharas (medium tempo phrases) towards
the end and secondly they are rich in Gamakas (graces). There is a
limit within which the tempo can, consistently with Raga Bhava,
be accelerated in Veena, and there are many Gamakas which can
be rendered in excelsis in that instrument.

The handling of Hindustani Ragas by Muthuswamy Dikshitar
is another notable feature of his music. The Karnataka music has
at all times been enriching itself by adopting and assimilating
Hindustani Ragas. That process can be seen in the compositions
of Purandaradas and Venkatamakhin. These Ragas, however, had
as a result of isolation, suffered some changes in Karnataka
music. Muthuswamy Dikshitar had, during his stay in Kasi,
acquired firsthand knowledge of these Ragas and his rendering of

COMPOSERS

them is more faithful to the original, and has elicited appreciation
in Hindustani music circles. His compositions in these Ragas are
among the masterpieces of Indian music. Such, for example, is the
piece 'Jambupate' in Yamunakalayani, 'Parimala Ranganatham' in
Hamirkalyani, 'Rangapuravihara' in Brindavana Saranga.

The influence of Hindustani music can be seen not only in the
Ragas handled by Dikshitar but also in the Gamakas used by him.
Some of them like Jaru, for example, though common to both
systems, figure prominently in the Hindustani music and Dikshitar
also has made good use of them.

While the influence of Hindustani music on the music of
Muthuswamy Dikshitar was immense, that of the Western music
was limited. One Mr. Brown, a Collector, liked so much the rich
and sonorous Sanskrit Sahitya in his songs that he requested him
to clothe English songs in Western music with Sanskrit garb.
Dikshitar took up the tunes which he had heard played by the
Band in Fort St. George, Madras and gave them a Sanskrit Sahitya
in praise of the Hindu gods. Thus "God save the King" became
"Santatam pahi mam, Sangita Syamale". There are about 50 songs
like this in which Sanskrit Sahitya has been substituted for
English words.

Like Ragas, the "Talas" of Indian music are one of its
distinctive features. There can be no great composition without a
command over them. Dikshitar was a master of Talas and is the
only composer who has written kirtanas in all the seven basic
Talas of the Karnatak system.

Turning next to the textual contents of the songs, they are all in
praise of the deities and their Rasa is Bhakti. But the Bhakti is
informed by Jnana (knowledge) and the emotional appeal is
subdued and undemonstrative. Dikshitar was steeped in the
Vedanta as interpreted by Sankaracharya and that may be thus
summed up:The Creator, the Parabrahma, is one and omnipotent;
He transcends Name and Form; all the deities worshipped are
only manifestations of the Parabrahman; the object of their
worship is to enable us to withdraw our minds from attachment to
the material world and concentrate upon a Form conceived as
divine; and the Saguno-pasana (worship of personal God) is but a

MUTHUSWAMY DIKSHITAR

Step in the realisation of the Nirgunabrahma (impersonal
Absolute) within us. It is with this mental approach that Dikshitar
visited the shrines of all the deities and sang their praise. The
songs contained both these elements; there are personal
descriptions of the deity and these are followed by a description of
It as transcending Name and Form. A typical description is that of
Santanaramaswamy as "Saguna-Nirguna-Swarupam". It can
easily be seen that with this approach there is no room for those
emotional outbursts which move and thrill us in the songs of
Tyagaraja. There is a calm and repose in the kirtanas suggestive
of Brahmananda. The Vilambakala in which the songs are cast is
well suited for this Bhava. To hear Dikshitar's music is to forget
all our materialistic affiliations and to lose ourselves in bliss.

Dikshitar believed that worship of the deities and Pooja would
discipline the mind and give it a spiritual bent. He was a devotee
of the Pen and his Navavaranakirtanas are an impressive
expression, in Music, of the Tantric worship. He has also
composed Navagraha kirtanas in praise of the planets. In brief all
the three courses, which are prescribed for spiritual
development—Karma, Bhakti and Jnana, had a place in his daily
life but he gave the pride of place to Jnana.

Then as regards the Sahitya of the songs, they are for the most
part in Sanskrit and a few in Telugu and Tamil. Given the nature
of the music in the kritis of Dikshitar, nothing could be more
appropriate than the adoption of Sanskrit by him. In the songs of
Tyagaraja emotion plays an important part and that is why he has
generally adopted Telugu as the proper vehicle of expert
expression. But in the songs of Dikshitar it is aesthetic excellence
of the Raga Sancharas that plays a dominant role. In his kritis the
Sahitya has a value not so much for its sense as for its tonal
quality. For richness of sound Sanskrit is unmatched and that is
why Dikshitar has preferred it. The music of Dikshitar has a
grandeur and sublimity all its own and that is due in no small
measure to the Sanskrit diction which he adopted. And further it is
only Sanskrit that can bring out adequately the transcendent
Vedantic concepts expressed in his songs.

Dikshitar shows his knowledge of Sanskrit. He has composed
songs in all the eight Vibhaktis (cases). It has sometimes been

COMPOSERS

said that his Sahitya lacks poetic quality. But one should
remember that in music the emphasis is not so much on the sense
as on the tonal quality of the words. There might be good poetry
which makes poor music, and conversely good music which
might lack poetry. Dikshitar has paid special attention to sound
values and has used Sabdalankaras such as Prasa and Anuprasa
for that purpose and has also used certain Alankaras such as
Gopuchha and Srotovaha for enhancing the musical value of the
songs. For illustration, reference may be made to the songs
Tyagaraja yoga vaibhavam, Maye, and Srivaralakshmi.

To conclude, for richness of Raga Bhava, for sublimity of their
philosophic contents and for the grandeur of the Sahitya, the
songs of Dikshitar stand unsurpassed. And when we find that he
has a mastery over not merely Karnataka music but also over
Hindustani music, and that he has composed songs not only on the
shrines of South India but also on Viswanatha, Visalakshi,
Annapurneswari temples of Kasi, on Ganga and on Pasupatiswar,
the realisation must come to us that he is a composer for all India
and for all times.

AMIR KHUSRAU

Chaitanya P.Desai

Culture, says Professor Maciver, is the expression of people
living and thinking in everyday intercourse, in art, in literature, in
religion, in recreation and enjoyment. That is why one feels that
the composite character of Indian culture is its own explanation.

In the eleventh century, in the reign of Ghaznavis, Lahore became
a center of Persian culture. Free intercourse became possible
between Persia, Afghanistan, Transoxania, Khurasana and Punjab.
Persian was the language of communication and of office. Turko-
Persian nobles, scholars, artists and saints migrated first to Punjab
and then to Delhi, Gujarat and finally up to the Deccan, carrying
with them the elements of Persian culture. As a result of their long
stay in India, they also absorbed some elements of the Indian
culture and a fusion of the two cultures took place. This is
reflected by the paintings and architecture of that era. The saints
who migrated to India generally belonged to the Sufi sect and
their Sufism became moulded after the Indian fashion.

Some Persian musicians were in the service of the Sultans and
Mughals of Delhi and so Indian music had the chance to
assimilate impressions of Persian music. Persian contact is felt
mainly in the North, somewhat in Gujarat and to a lesser extent in
the Deccans.

This so called Indo-Persian culture which attained its highest
phase in the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries in the time of the
Mughals, waned gradually after them. But even today we find
signs of this fusion in the doctrine of Sikhism and in Urdu poetry.
No doubt, the Khari Boli, which later developed into Hindi, was
also a result of this.

COMPOSERS

Amir Khusrau the poet, was the foremost visionary of that
age, and contributed most to the fusion of the two cultures.
Khusrau’s ancestors were Turks — “Hazara” of Lachin , a warrior
clan who had come from Tansoxania or Khorasan, and stayed in
India for several generations. Amir Khusrau was bom in 1253.
His mother was of Indian origin. Khusrau’s father Amir Saifiiddin
Mahmud, a noble, was in the military service of Samsuddin
Iltutmish. The family was settled at Patiyali, a small town in the
district of Etah, otherwise known as Mum inpore or Maminabad.
Khusrau’s maternal grandfather was “Rawal-Ard” i.e. in charge of
the royal horses. He also held the emblem of authority in political
matters. Khusrau had two brothers. From a tender age he was
given personal lessons in theology and Koran, besides regular
lessons in Persian language. He was also taught Arabic, logic, and
some fine arts, notably calligraphy and poetry. About the latter he
himself has stated : At a tender age I began to compose verses that
roused the admiration and wonder of my elders.^

His upbringing and participation in the society of the learned
afforded him wholesome opportunities to listen to intellectual
discourses of erudite scholars, recitals of poetry and repertoires of
reputed musicians. Khusrau was a bom poet. His compositions
won him willing princely patronages, even at the young age of
twenty. He served as poet -laureate to at least six Sultans, the last
being Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

In 1284, Khusrau became a full-fledged Sufi under the tutelage
of the famous Chishtiya Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya and
henceforth, his heart was set on things beyond worldly intrigues
and ambitions.

The saint soon conceived a strong liking for Khusrau. Khusrau
applied all his thoughts to the realm of spiritual bliss and
devotion, and his association with the saint gave his poetry a new
strength and vigour, a divine glow and fire.

Some years later, the 95 years old saint died after a long
illness. Khusrau heard the sad news when he returned to Delhi
from Oudh and the final separation broke the heart of the aged
poet. It is said that on hearing the news, he rent his garments,

* Dr.M.W.Mirza, The life and works of Amir Khusrau (Calcutta 1935^, p.20

AMIR KHUSRAU

blackened his face and recited the following couplet at the grave
of his master and fell down in a swoon:

"Gori sowe sej par, mukh par dare kes,
chal Khusro ghar apne, rain bhayi sab des!"

Khusrau declared that he would soon join his master,
according to the latter’s prophecy. In a few days, Khusrau also
died. According to his master's wish, his body was buried outside
the cupola of the saint's grave. Both the graves have become a
place of pilgrimage. Khusrau's grave bears the following
inscription:

"Mir Khusrau, the king of poesy's realm, the ocean of accom¬
plishment and sea of perfection".’

Devotees visit and worship both the shrines, by strewing
flowers and lighting lamps on them. Qawwals hold Khusrau as
their master. We also come across some traditional dhrupads and
Khyals, in praise of saint Nizamuddin, such as:

"Tu hai mommadasa darabar,

Nizamuddin sujaan" etc.

Two more Khyal geets in Raga Purbi in praise of Auliya are as
follows:

(i) Charan parasat eri anand.

(ii) Aiso pir Jara jarojar baksan
Nizamuddin Auliya, e dhan dhan.

Persian verse in India began to be written a \ the age of
Ghaznavi by poets who migrated to India or were born in India.
Khusrau speaks very highly of one or two of his predecessors. But
Amir Khusrau was the greatest of them all. His fame spread far
and wide, even to Persia. He has composed nearly sixteen works
of poetry in Persian. He wrote his best poems at the ripe age of
sixty.

Five of his long poems are based on historical themes in which
he describes military campaigns and gives interesting details
about the country and particularly about Delhi. He was not a
historian, still he has thrown much light on the social conditions
of the time and has given a general picture of the country. One

' Ibid, pp.134-136, 138

COMPOSERS

poem Ashiqa, deals with the love-story of Khidrakhai and Dewal
Rani, the captured princess of Gujarat, and is full of the poet's
patriotism and love for his motherland. Another poem, Aina-i-
Sikandari, descriptive of the campaign of Alexander the Great,
gives much information about various inventions of Greeks such
as sun-meter, looking glass, cotton tents, etc.

In his poetry, he has also expressed his thoughts about
common people and common things. In his poem Ghurrat-ul-
kamal, he has addressed some stanzas to such persons as the
fisherman, tavern keeper, weaver and tailor.^

Khusrau was also a prolific writer of Persian prose. He has
compiled three prose works. One of them rjaz-i-Khusravi, is a
voluminous work, containing five chapters, the last one being
written at the age of seventy. In the work— Tarikh-i-Alai, he has
described the historical events of Ala-ud-din's first sixteen years
of reign. According to Firishta and Nizamuddin, the poetry in
Hindi (or 'Hindui') was composed as early as the time of Mahmud
of Ghazna. The old biographers and anthologists mention that
Khusrau had also composed poems in Hindi. Recently a small
collection of Khusrau's Hindi poems has been published. But
there is no proof that these poems, vulgar and funny, were
composed by Khusrau and the authorship is disputed by modern
scholars on linguistic grounds. This does not mean that he did not
know Hindi well or did not use it in daily talk. His statements
show that he knew Hindi better than Arabic and he was also proud
of it. At one place he says:

"I am an Indian Turk and can reply to you in Hindi. I have no
Egyptian sugar to talk of Arabia and Arabic. As I am in fact the
parrot of India, question me in Hindi, that I may talk sweetly".^

Khusrau's writings give ample proof that he was a lover of
music and knew Persian and Indian systems and perhaps practised
both to some extent. Being in the court service for a long time, he
had numerous opportunities to listen to good music and he was
also intimately acquainted with many musicians. Thus he was a

* Ibid, p. 166
^ Ibid, pp.227-228

AMIR KHUSRAU

great connoisseur of music. About his knowing the science of
music, he himself has said at one place: "If I were to write on
music, I could have composed three volumes on that science
too."^ One chapter of his work Fjaz-i-Khusrawi deals with music,
musicians and musical instruments of his time. He has mentioned
one female musician, Turmati Khatun, who became the head of
the royal music department, through the influence of Khusrau.
The names of musical instruments he has given are as follows:
Abab-rud, Rabab, Tanbur, Nay, etc. The names of the court
musicians he has mentioned are: Mohammad Shah, Kunjashk,
Khalifa Husaini Akhlaq, etc.^ Among these Mohammad Shah was
a chang (Kanun) player. It seems from the description given by
Khusrau that the Delhi Sultans patronized Gazal-Qawwali music
more than classical Indian music. This writing on music by
Khusrau does not throw much light on the musical system of his
time or his knowledge of it.

Some authors of old give credit to Kliusrau for introducing
Persian melodies and blending Indian Ragas with Persian airs and
making innovations which revolutionised the Indian music. The
writer Shibli, in his Shir-ul-Ajam says : "Khusrau's versatile
genius turned to this fine art too and raised it to such a degree of
excellence that he has remained unrivalled during the long period
of six hundred years." The same writer has narrated the contest
between Khusrau and the famous Southern musician, Gopal
Nayak. Shibli has also given a list of Persian melodies, which
were mixed with Indian Ragas by Khusrau to form new Ragas but
the mixing seems to be imaginary.

Wajid Ali Shah, in his Saut-el-Mubarak holds Khusrau as the
Nayak of Khyal and inventor of Tarana. He further declares:

"Khusrau's inventions destroyed all the regulations and
instruments established for a thousand years, while his disciples in
their audacity vied with the Kalavants, the representatives of the
old system, that dates back to the time of Mahadeo." Needless to
say, the statements of these writers are exaggerated and baseless.

' Ibid, p. 146
-Ibid, p.218

^ Elliot, History of India, Vol III, p.566

COMPOSERS

Khusrau, who has described commonplace incidents and details of
his life and work, would not have kept silent about his great
achievements in the art of music. Abul Fazal in his Airi’i-Akbari
says, "Kowl and Taraneh were composed by Amir Khusrau with
the assistance of Samut and Tetar. They are a delightful mixture
of the Persian and Hondive style". (The translation is by Francis
Gladwin.). These Samut and Tetar must be musicians. It is
remarkable that Abul Fazal, Raja Khan, Fakirulla and all the Urdu
writers on music have followed the Hindu system and not Persian.
Some writers hold Khusrau to be the inventor of the instrument
Sitar. But the name Sitar is not found in the works of Khusrau or
of his successors. Though fretted string instruments have been
mentioned by Abhinavagupta (tenth century) in his commentary
on Natyasastra^ the traditional Raga-music in the form of Dhrupad
singing was in full swing at the time of Akbar the Great, and
dominated the field of music up to the 18th century when the
Khyal style began to emerge from it slowly.^ Dhrupad style was
in vogue also in the Deccan at least up to the time of Ibrahim
Adilshah of Bijapur (1580-1627). Persian music until today is far
below the standard of Indian Raga music and so the former has
nothing of importance to impart to the latter. But at the time of
Khusrau and thereafter, some Persian melodies, to which
Khusrau’s Qawwalis were set up, must have been adopted by
Indian music and it is possible that Khusrau might have been
responsible for their introduction. Sarangadeva, the contemporary
of Amir Khusrau, has mentioned two such melodic forms of
Turkish origin, viz., Turushka-Gaod and Turushka-Todi,^ which I
guess to be the current Ragas, Yaman and Todi, respectively, two
of our best Ragas.

Khusrau himself was also of the opinion that Indian music was
far more developed than and superior to the music of any other
country, as he has stated in his work Nuh Sipihr (the nine skies):

"The musical system originated in India. And Indian music,
the fire that burns heart and soul, is superior to the music of any
other country. Foreigners, even after a stay of 30 to 40 years in

‘G.D.S. Vol IV, p.l8

■ See my article on Khyal, Music Academy Journal. Madras, 1969
^ Sangeet Ratnakar (Adyar, first edition), Vol I p.92, 97

AMIR KHUSRAU

India cannot play a single Indian tune correctly. Indian music
charms not only men, but beasts too"\ On another occasion, some
musicians had come from Khorasan and Khusrau wanted to invite
Indian musicians to compete with them, so that "The dove-
pigeons of Bala should know how the Indian birds sing". It is also
possible that the Qawwali music which was developed at the time
of Khusrau, had borrowed some peculiarities of Persian style, viz.,
some shades, twists and even tanas and these peculiarities might
have penetrated into Khyal style. But some hundred years must
have been required for the process of this assimilation, as the
Khyal style established its personality in the 18th century.
Therefore, it will be wrong to hold Khusrau as the Nayak (master)
of the Khyal style. Certainly, he was not the innovator or even
promoter of the Khyal style, as is generally believed. As Khusrau
himself realised Indian music to be superb and perfect, he would
have never thought of meddling with it.

Khusrau was a religious man. He had a sense of humour,
carried his sorrows lightly, could see what was ridiculous and
laughed at it, yet he showed no malice. He had few racial,
religious or social prejudices, but had more tolerance which was a
rare quality in his age. He was, no doubt, proud of his Turkish
descent, but at the same time, he loved India. It was but natural
that he had a contempt for the conquered race and for their rites
and temples. At the same time, he is touched by their grievances
and admires their devotion and faithfulness. He has praised the
warlike exploits of their conquerors. He was generous with his
money. As he had no prejudices, he acquired popularity. He did
not like falsehood and hypocrisy. He had many friends, and he
was sought after and liked by everyone. The assembly seemed as
if lighted by his presence. He had to pass from one patron to
another, tune his lyre to a different tune every time and to sing
praises of a murderer as those of his victim! But he should not be
judged solely by such odes of his.^

Khusrau had not said much about his family life, but we can
know from his writings that he was married happily and had
several children, whom he loved. He also speaks tenderly of his

’Dr.M.W.Mirza, The life and works of Amir Khusrau (Calcutta, 1935), p.l85
^Ibid, p.233-234

COMPOSERS

brother and his children. He has addressed a whole chapter of
Hasht Bihisht to his daughter. But he loved and cared for his
mother the most.’ Khusrau loved the country, its sky, moonshine,
the stars, its flowers, its dark beauties, its language and learning.
In his work Nur Sipihr he has put forward the following
arguments to prove the superiority of Hindu knowledge:

"Why, some may ask me, all this preference for India? But,
what praise can there be for what has already been so highly

praised? .I know that in this land lie the wisdom and ideas

beyond dispute. Greece has been famous for its philosophy, but
India is not devoid of it. All branches of philosophy are found
here: logic, astrology, dogmatic theology, in fact, every science,
except 'faqr' (sufism) is found. Though they do not believe in our
religion, many of their beliefs are like ours. They believe in the
unity and eternity of one God, His power to create after
nothingness, etc... They worship, no doubt, stones, beasts, plants,
the sun, but they recognise that these things are creations of

God. Knowledge and learning are common and widespread

among them. They can speak all the languages of the world.
Learned men from all parts of the world have come from time to
time to study in India, while no Brahmin has ever travelled to any
place outside India".^

This statement of Amir Khusrau is indicative of his liberal
thinking and greatness of heart! We can even go so far as to con¬
sider Amir Khusrau as the emblem of national integration.

' Ibid, p.235

^Ihid, pp. 183-185 ifek:

TANSEN

K. C. D. Brahaspati

Historical information about Tansen, the great musician, who
lived in Akbar’s court and was considered a rare jewel, are found
in many historical memoirs and writings from which much
authentic information has been gained. Of these writings the most
significant are those written during the reigns of Akbar and his
son Jahangir. During Shahjahan's reign too, there were some
discerning lovers, scholars and musicians who had known Tansen
and the tradition and style of his music. These accounts constitute
valuable material for the assessment of Tansen's genius and
personality in the proper historical perspective.

Tansen’s parentage, place of birth and religious affiliations
have different versions—a queer mixture of the imaginary and
the authentic. An attempt is made here to give a correct esti- mate
of Tansen the man, and Tansen the musician. In addition to
historical writings bearing on the subject, reference also will be
made here to a rare collection of Tansen's compositions in the
Gwalior tradition.

In his book Aw-i-Akhari, Abul Fazal has enumerated many
categories, groups or classes of musicians, among which are
mentioned Dharhi, Qawwal, Hudakiya, Dafzan, Natawa,
Kalawant and Kirtaniya. The last alone were called by Abul Fazal
as Brahmins. In this classification the title Kalawant is a special
category representative of expert, professional musicians, 'in
works like Ain-i-Akbari, Tarikhe-Muhammadi and others, Tansen
has been designated as a "Kalawant" or "Kalaunt". It may be
mentioned here that Brahmins as a community never adopted

' Ain-J-Akban, translator, Gladwyn, p.l34. Section 2

COMPOSERS

music as a lucrative profession of a mercenary kind as it was
forbidden by the sacred Smritis. To the Brahmin, from time
immemorial, music was primarily a means of devotion, and only
secondarily a profession.

According to Ain-i-Akbari Tansen belonged to Gwalior.^ In
one of his Dhrupad compositions also Tansen has praised that
place,^ as Garh Gopachal (Gwalior). According to tradition,
Tansen vas born in a place called Behat near Gwalior.

Tansen's date of birth has been a subject of endless
controversy. In this respect, the available historical evidence can
be stated thus:—

(a) According to Abul Fazal, before 1562, Tansen was in the
service of Raja Ram Chandra of Rewa and was thinking of
retirement. In that age of health and vigour, Tansen must have
been an active man of seventy years of age at that time. This leads
us to the reasonable surmise that he must have been born around
1492 or so.

(b) It is said that in 1575 or so Tansen's voice had become very
discordant and harsh"^ probably due to extreme old age as he must
have been then in his early eighties. Hence his year of birth must
have been around 1492.

(c) Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior died in 1516. Tansen had
composed many Dhrupad compositions in praise of this illustrious
ruler and in one of these, he had called him his benevolent
patron.^ A fine and mature composer of excellent Dhrupad
compositions like Tansen must not have been less than twenty-
five years of age at that time. This fact also would go to establish
the year of his birth around 1492.

Tansen was a Hindu and remained a Hindu all his life. Music
accompanied his funeral procession.^ Demonstration of joy at the

' Ibid, translator, Blockman
2

Raga-mala, a collection of Kudan Singh gharana, p.lSA
^ Akbar-nama, translator, Beveridge, sec2, p.279
^ Muntakhabuttawarikh, Badaun, translator. Author, p.273, sec 2
^Akbari Durbar Ke Hindi Kavi (The Hindi Poets of Akbar ’s Court), p.l 10
^ Akbar-nama, p.880, sec.2

TANSEN

death of old venerable people through music sung and played
along with the funeral procession, is a pure Hindu custom. More¬
over, even Hindus who were associated intimately with Sufi saints
or poets, were entitled to "Miyan" as a prefix or a suffix.

While other Sufi traditional orders had banned music, the
Chisti Sufi Order has admitted it into its fold. It is due to the
blessings of Shaikh Saleem Chisti of Sikri that Jahangir was born.
Akbar was a true devotee of this well-known Sufi saint and he
was chiefly promoted by his own devotion to him to make Sikri
his capital from 1571 to 1585. Tansen, at this time, was Akbar’s
court musician and had the opportunity to visit the saint and sing
before him. The saint, it may be recalled, was very fond of his
music.

As regards Shaikh Mohd Ghaus, Tansen had probably no
direct association or link with him. Historical Sufi writings
connected with Mohd Ghaus make no mention of Tansen.
According to the author of the work Masirul-Umara, Mohd
Ghaus had written his distinguished work Jawahire-Khams in 929
Hijri (1523) when he was twenty-two years of age. This proves
that he was born in 1501 or so. Thus he was eight or nine years
junior to Tansen in age and could not have been the latter's
preceptor.

In view of these facts, the legends about Tansen's birth as a
result of the blessings of Mohd Ghaus and Tansen's tomb in
Gwalior, give rise to a historical controversy yet to be resolved. It
is, moreover, a fact that Shaikh Mohd Ghaus and his brother
Shaikh Gadayee had lost the favour of Akbar's court and were
treated as 'persona non grata'.^

It is just possible that Tansen became a disciple-devotee of
Shaikh Saleem Chishti, for which a change of religion was not
necessary. There are many examples of non-Muslim devotees of
the Sufi saints and Muslims deeply moved and influenced by the
Vaishnava cult.

A man called Makarand of Gwalior is said to have been

Ibid, pp. 133-135

COMPOSERS

Tansen's music teacher.’ But "Makarand" might have been a pen-
name and it might also have been his own father’s name as it is
popularly believed. It is also maintained that Mohd Adil Shah
Adah was also Tansen's teacher.^ It is also just possible that
Bakshu, the court-musician of Raja Mansingh Tomar and a
mature, elderly musician of vast experience and versatile genius,
might have influenced Tansen, a younger musician.

Works written during Tansen's life-time do not provide any
solid evidence that Tansen was a pupil of Swami Haridas of
Brindavan. While some works have mentioned Swami Haridas as
Tansen's teacher, others have asserted that Shri Govind Swami
was Tansen's teacher. All such works, however, were written
hundreds of years after Tansen's death and express opposite and
antagonistic view-points.

Some music biographers and historians have even asserted that
Tansen was a pupil of the famous Haridas "Dagur", who was, in
fact, much younger to the former, chronologically speaking.

Faqirullah has called Tansen an "Atayee" (amateur) and
according to him, mere practical musicians with no profound
knowledge of music as a great art, belonged to this category
which represents a pejorative term. He has gone to the extent of
calling Tansen even unlettered (nirakshar) and illiterate. Tansen
might have been "illiterate" in the usual, current sense of the
word, but he was a man of vast knowledge gained through
experience. Having lived in intimate contact with poets, pundits,
and savants of a high order, his genius as a musician-composer
had blossomed forth into full exuberance. Just as Kabir who knew
not how to read or write, wrote verses that were collected and
preserved by the devotees and his disciples, Tansen's great
compositions were preserved and transmitted to the succeeding
generations by his disciples and the followers of his tradition.

Tansen composed hundreds of Dhrupad compositions and
some of them were associated with the name of Akbar;'’ Some of

’ Raga-mala, 118A

" Muntakhabuttawarikli, p557

Raga-darpana, 9thchapter, hand-written ms, Rampiir State Library
^ Ain-I-Akbari, Blackman Ip.445

TANSEN

these Dhrupad compositions even prove that Akbar studied music
treatises like Sangeet-ratnakar with great attention and deep
interest and in his discussions on music, Tansen was an invariable
participant.^ And it is needless to mention that on such occasions
Sanskrit scholars and pundits were always present.

Some Dhrupad compositions by Tansen also prove that he was
fully conversant with the ancient "Moorcchana" tradition as well
as the comparatively new "Muqam" tradition in music^. He
enriched knowledge of music through his close contacts with
foreign Muslim musicians of Akbar's court. New conceptions and
interpretations of many Ragas came into vogue due to these
historic changes in Akbar's time. Such changes and
transformations were inevitable as a product of a historic process.

Raja Mansingh Tomar, ruler of Gwalior (1486—1516), was
the first patron of Tansen. His son, Vikramjit, ruled only for two
years and in 1518, Ibrahim Lodi had subjugated Gwalior and
brought the vanquished ruler with him to Agra. In 1526,
Vikramajit was killed while fighting against Babar as an ally of
Ibrahim Lodi.

It is just possible that Tansen lived from 1518 to 1526 under
the shelter of Vikramajit, his patron, and during this period, came
into contact with Swami Haridas of Brindavan. But it cannot be
definitely stated where Tansen lived during these unsettled
conditions of political change.

In 1549, Mohd Adil Shah Adah occupied the Suryavanshi
throne. He was a brother-in-law to Sher Shah's son, Islam Shah
and a profound scholar and lover of music. He was a patron to
such illustrious men as Ramdas, Bazbahadur and Tansen. The
well-known Hemu Adah was his prime minister. Tansen was
Adah's pupil as well as his protege. It was perhaps after the
downfall of the Suryavanshi reign that Tansen went and sought
shelter under Ramchandra Baghela.

In 1562, Tansen left Ramchandra's Court and came to Akbar's

' Raga-mala, 275A, 281A
^ Ibid,}86A

COMPOSERS

court where he lived the last part of his life.* It is said that Tansen
was forced to leave Ramchandra's patronage and join Akbar's
court against his wishes. . It is said that the well-known Jainkhan
had spoken to Akbar about Tansen's music in extremely eulogistic
terms. As a result of this, one Commander Jalal Khan Koorchi
was sent with an army to bring Tansen and Raja Ramchandra had
to part with him in deep sorrow"*. It is this very patron Raja
Ramchandra who on one occasion being profoundly moved by
Tansen's music had given him a reward of one crore of gold
coins.^ He was universally praised for his great generosity.

Tansen was granted the highest rank at Akbar's court.^ It is
said that he used to sing standing during the day time and he sat
and sang in the night, especially on certain important occasions.
And every day, on one pretext or another, Akbar used to give him
some rewards or gifts as money or other valuable articles as a
token of appreciation of his music.^

Tansen readily adjusted to this new life under Akbar's
patronage. In a mood of exaltation in many of his Dhrupad
compositions, Tansen called Akbar a world-teacher, an image and
incarnation of God, one who liberated him (Tansen) from all the
misery and sorrow of life, performing as if an act of deliverance
for him. Tansen, in a word, looked upon Akbar as a seer, a savant
and a great preceptor.^

Here is an example of Tansen's Dhrupad in praise of Akbar:

The learned only sing thy praise
Thy fame embraces the whole world

' Akbar-nama, p. 279, Sec. 2
Muntakhabuttawarikh, p. 345, Sec. 2
^ Ajkal (Urdu), Music Number, p. 95
Muntakhabuttawarikh, p Sec. 2. 345
^ Ibid

^Akbar-nama, p. 270, sec. 2
^ Kitab-navarasa, Preface, p. 49
^ Iqbal-nama, Jahangir, Rampur Copy
^ Raga-mala, 124A

TAN SEN

The living creatures utter thy name only

The whole world is covered by thy glory.

Tansen addresses thee 0 Lord of mercy !

It is at thy behest that music reigns in the court

It is due to thee that Ragas and Raginis sound so sweet

0 Lord, Lord of the world, thy name is soothing and

comforting.

All this, however, is symbolic of a change in Tansen's mental
outlook in this period of transition, though Akbar himself was
instrumental in bringing about a close contact between Shaikh
Saleem Chishti and Tansen at an earlier stage. Hence Tansen's
warm tribute to Akbar in such laudatory terms as "seer and
savant". But Tansen's name does not occur in any authentic list of
courtiers who became the followers of Akbar's eclectic religion,
"Deen-e-Ilahi". It is just possible, he did not accept "Deen-e-
Ilahi".

At Tansen's death, Akbar had said that it was the death of the
Ragas of our music and that for the past centuries there was none
like Tansen in the sweetness and skill of the art of music.^ The
question arises that if Akbar had heard the music of Swami
Haridas, alleged to be Tansen's teacher, why was he prompted to
praise Tansen's music in such superlative terms? But then, even
Abul Fazal wrote and testified that the like of Tansen was not
born for several centuries in the past.

Mughal kings with Hindu wives had become almost a
convention, and during Akbar's reign, the custom was followed
with greater freedom. The aristocrats, the courtiers and the elite
were carried away by this popular convention brought into vogue
by their rulers. Tansen, too, followed this convention that aimed at
the rejection of the barriers of caste and creed and so had Muslim
children from his Muslim wife and Hindu children from his Hindu

' Akbar-nama, p. 880, sec. 3
Ain-i-Akbah, Blackman, p. 445

COMPOSERS

wife. Based on authentic facts the following description of his
descendants is now acceptable to all discerning scholars.

Tansen

Tantarang

Khan

Bilas Klian

Surat Sen

(son-in-law)

Lai Khan

Sohil Sen Sudhir Sen

Khushal Bisram Khan Rasbain Khan

Khan

Bhupat Khan

This family tree is supported by historical facts as
stated below:

Abul Fazal has mentioned the name of Tansen's son,
Tantarang Khan, among the thii*ty-six distinguished musicians of
Akbar's court.^ There is a reference of Bilas Khan, Tansen's son,
both in Badshah-nama and Raga-darpana:T\\Q author of Raga-
darpana, Faqirullah was the Governor of Kashmir during
Jahangir's and Shah Jahan's reigns and he had full knowledge of
Tansen's contemporaries and also his descendants. He has also
mentioned the names of Tansen's son, Surat Sen and also his
grand-sons, Sohil Sen and Sudhir Sen.

^Ain-l-Akbari. Blockman, p. 681-682
“ Ain-l-Akbari, Blockman, Commentary, p. 680
^ Raga-darpana, 9th Part and 10“' part

TANSEN

Bilas Khan's daughter was married to Lai Klian who was
known to the family and Tansen himself had put him under Bilas
Khan's care and guidance.^ Again, Tantarang Khan and Bilas
Khan were distinguished musicians of Jahangir's court. Shah
Jahan had appointed Lai Khan, Bilas Khan's son-in-law as his
court musician and had conferred on him the title "Guna-
Samundar Khan" in 1630.“ After Lai Klian's death, his son
Khushal Khan was appointed the court musician and was also the
recipient of his father's title "Guna-Samundar Khan"^. Bisram
Khan was also a court musician and used to sing together with
Khushal Khan.

It is recorded that Aurangzeb's coronation on July 23, 1658,
was celebrated with music."^ Also, that in 1668, Kliushal Khan,
Bisram Khan and Rasbain Klian used to visit Aurangzeb's court,
and on October 22, 1668, Aurangzeb had given a reward of three
thousand rupees to Khushal Khan. It is also recorded that on
Bisram Khan's death, his son, Bhupat Khan and his brother,
Khushal Khan were granted a royal gift (Kliilat) by Aurangzeb.^

From Akbar's time to that of Aurangzeb, the above family-tree
has an authentic basis. Though the families of other musicians
have tried to forge doubtful and fictitious links with Tansen's
family and his descendants, the thing does not seem to have any
historical authenticity.The following is a fairly authentic list of
Tansen's disciples:

1. Tantarang Khan

2. Bilas Khan

3. Miyan Chand—He was fifth in the list of the distinguished
musicians of Akbar's court.

4. Surat Sen—According to Faqirullah, he was the son and
disciple of Tansen.

‘ Ajkal f'L/rt/wf Music Number, pi00
^ Raga-darpana, 10th Chapter
Aurangzeb-nama, p. 44, Part 1
^ “ p. 10, Part 2

4 „ . , p. 32, Part 2

COMPOSERS

5. Baklit Khan Kalawant (Gujarat)—According to Faqirullah,
he was also a pupil of Tansen.

The works Raga-mala, Sangeet-sar and Ganesh-stotra have
been attributed to Tansen. Excepting the last-mentioned work, the
first two are extant, but their authenticity is not free from dispute.
In a work like "Raga-Kalpadruma" many Dhrupad composition"
of Tansen are available as a literary treasure bu. their original
form, musically speaking, is definitely garbled and unauthentic.

In a rare collection of compositions of the Gwalior tradition,
there are many unknown and unpublished Dhrupad compositions
by Tansen, and from many points of view, they are very valuable.
As regards the purity and authenticity of Ragas, Tansen's Dhrupad
compositions are an undisputed authority. But it is difficult to say
how far their present version among musicians is a true re¬
production of the original. The original compositions, set to
certain Ragas, are not often sung in the same Ragas but in other
Ragas, sometimes entirely different. Therefore, it is difficult to
make a final comment on the present version of these old, time-
honoured Dhrupad compositions, as music too, like all art, is
subject to the inexorable law of change.

But what must be borne in mind is the fact that from the time
of Tansen Dhrupad came to be recognised as the classical mode or
style of singing in Hindustani music and it was later divided into
the four well-known styles or Banis: Gaurhar, Khandar, Nohar
and Dagur, one or two of which still exist.

It may also be pointecfdut that Tansen's Dhrupad compositions
were preserved and sung by generations of musicians after his
death and the tradition named after Tansen's name called "Senia"
still continues in some recognisable form here and there. His
Dhrupads are still smig by trained traditionalists among
musicians.

Tansen lived at Akbar's court from 1562 to 1589 until his
death. During this time, he came into intimate contact with many
notable and distinguished poets known to Akbar, and among these
may be mentioned Karnes, Dursaji, Holray Bhatt, Kumbhan Das,
Vyas, Chandrabhan, Chaturbhuj Das, Raja Askaran, Kunwar
Prithviraj, Surdas, Madanmohan, Manohar, Todarmal, Narhari,

TANSEN

Birbal, Ganga, etc. Such an intimate contact with poets must have
heightened his imagination and inspired his poetic imagery and
even enriched his music. Tansen was no idle versifier but a truly
gifted poet of deep insight and subtle fancies and coupled with his
mind's maturity was another gift, his great and inexhaustible
imagination —his divine inventiveness.

Tansen basked in the glory of Akbar's reign and was almost a
companion to his royal patron. So he cultivated the poise and
dignity of a great musician and an equally great composer of
Dhrupads. Here are some examples of his compositions in
which one finds a sublime synthesis of the poet and the musician.

There is a subtle pun on the word "Lai" which means the red
colour and is also the name of Krishna ! "Gopal Lai". In the
following composition by Tansen, Krishna is found in the midst
of the Gopis bewitched by his love and it is the red colour which
dominates the scene:

The red colours and suffuses everything—

The eyes, the clothes, the creepers, the flowers.

The necklace, the emerald in the nose, the precious

ornaments on the feet,

The Couch, the Bajuband, the Kangan around the tender

hands

The red legs and the red feet that move gently,

Tansen says that even the ground is red
And in the midst of the red-clothed Gopis
sits the beloved Gopal Lai.

A love-lorn Gopi, restless and mad, is in search of Krishna and
goes out to sell milk and curd, only as a pretext - an exuse to meet
him.

She sets out to sell her milk, her curd

And she goes about with her small vessel and her

tender sweet words

She has been restless the whole night in the pangs of

separation

And the locks of hair over her sad face and the faded

garland of flowers

COMPOSERS

Tell the tale of love.

It is only a pretext for loitering about in the search of

Krishna

Tansen says that after love's dalliance with Lord

Krishna

The love-intoxicated Gopi walks gently like an

elephant

Nature has been a great theme for many Hindi poets who have
described its many aspects in memorable words. Here is a
Dhrupad composition by Tansen in Raga Bhairav descriptive of
the spring season:

The whole nature around is full of life and foliage
The wind blows and different flowers blossom forth

gorgeously.

All the birds—cuckoo, parrot, peacock, dove, the

thirsting chatak-

burst forth with joy anew

And new life and colour rain upon the earth

Music bursts forth from Kinir, Risal, Been and

Mridanga

As homage to Saraswati, the goddess of fine arts.

Miyan Tansen says that at this hour
One begins with an Alap in Raga Bhairav
As a sacred and quiet invocation to the morning.

Again, here is another imaginative piece :

Krishna, like a black cloud, has come
And now rains the full showers of sweet Joy.

There is a thunder in the music of his flute.

And a lightning-flash in his smiles

His teeth are like an array of white birds

And face and limbs are clothed in beauty and

Power

Tansen says the same Lord has a dalliance

With the damsels of Braj

And when he teases them from love's mischief

There is a disarray of clothes and ornaments all over.

TANSEN

The conception of Moorchhana, that was the basis of our
ancient music, has now unfortunately been replaced by the Mela
system of Ragas. Sage Bharata had given a clear analysis of this
basic principle without examining which, one cannot understand
the significance of ancient music. Tansen in the following
Dhrupad composition, has made a pointed reference to this fact:

Dhaivat, Pancham. Madhyam, Gandhar
Rishab, Sharaj Sur and Re—these the learned
Practise with perseverance.

Also practice and master the thirteen

Alankars and the twenty-two Srutis

and also sing musical notes with a correct intonation.

Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa
Sa Dha Re, Sa Ni Dha Ni Dha Pa
Ma Ga Re.

The learned describe that there are three notes
In between notes as finer tones and shades.

And Tansen describes the seven notes.

The three Grams, the twenty-one Moorchhanas.

And the thirty-six finer shades
of notes, the subtle points of nad.

Here is a lively description of the languorous eyes that have
not slept in the night:

Your red eyes betray your sweet dalliance
With your lover in the night
The eyes like lotus leaves are restless and are
besides themselves.

The eyebrows close and open by turns as
if love's arrows shot.

The flowers bloom in the lake and it seems
Everything around is surcharged with the Lord's love.

The following Dhrupads by Tansen are in praise of Daulat
Khan's handsome figure, an unusual subject to which full Justice
has been done:

Oh I cannot describe the light of my beloved brother's face!

I know it in my heart. And my heart
Knows what praise I wish to render to him.

COMPOSERS

I cannot compare him with anything
I know it only in my heart.

I find the fruit of my desire

In the company I keep of beloved Daulat Khan.

There is another composition, with similar unusual theme,
Daulat Khan's anger and protest through silence. The situation
applies only to the type of women called 'manini in Indian poetry.
But Tansen has treated the subject quite convincingly in the
present Dhrupad:

Beloved, why do you get angry with me?

If I have erred, forgive my mistake

Now come and embrace me, I am restless in my anxiety.

Do not cease to speak your loving words to me and
Become not a stranger to me.

Who will lay down his life for you when you are in peril ?

I claim to be your true friend.

Laughingly I interrogate him, but

Why does not the bright beloved Daulat Khan answer?

And the last composition in which Tansen describes the words
spoken by the complaining beloved (Khandita Nayika) to her
wayward lover, is truly representative of our traditional amorous
poetry:

You have come with tired, languorous face I know it all
Your staggering feet, your stammering words
And your intermittent yawns hide nothing.

Though the secrets are revealed, the lover
Tells not the tale of his sweet dalliance.

Tansen's lord, Krishna, for nothing has

Taken all this trouble to visit the love-lorn beloved at dawn.

GOPALAKRISHNA BHARATI

Mudikondan C. Venkatarama Iyer

When one just mentions the name of Nandanar Charitram. in
the Katha Kalakshepam (musical discourse), people flock in
hundreds and thousands and listen to this popular story of Nandan
the Pariah (Harijan) who found a place in the temples of South
India as one of the sixty-three Nayanars— devotees of Siva. The
author of this popular musical narrative is Gopalakrishna Bharati.

Gopalakrishna Bharati, one of whose immortal works is
thisNandanar Charitram, lived in that very age, the first half of
the 19th century, when the world of music saw the appearance in
the Cauvery Delta of Sri Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and
Syama Sastri, the great trinity of Karnataka Music. The
benevolent Maratha regime at Tanjore was already on its wane;
but the modes of artistic expression in music, dance, drama,
painting, sculpture as well literature that had reached the zenith of
everlasting beauty during that regime, continued. This period was
the culmination of the progressive efforts in these fields of at least
three centuries that preceded it.

A few historical facts and a good deal of local oral tradition
and information are known from which a life account of
Gopalkrishna Bharati is reconstructed here. Some of the evidence
is from his own works. The rest is culled from wide and detailed
enquiries in and around Mudikondan, Anandatandavapuram,
Tiruvidaimarudur,Konerirajapuram, Tiruppangoor, Chidambaram,
Mayuram and some other lesser known places in Tanjavur district
with all of which the composer was connected. Ramaswami
Bharati, his father, was a Brahmin of the Vadama sub-sect of
Bharadwaja Gotra. Ramaswami and his father had been Veena

COMPOSERS

artists who had to give up their practice to turn towards other jobs.
Gopalakrishna, the son, was born in Narimanam, a village near
Nagapattinam in Tanjavur district in Tamil Nadu in 1810. The
aptitude towards music is therefore partly inherited and partly
acquired, for his father must have been his firsfGuru'. He had his
first education in Sanskrit, Tamil and music at Mudikondan. To
this day, the villagers point out the house in which he lived for
many years, and also refer to the few compositions of his on the
village and its men, of his times.

Gopalakrishna was orphaned early in his life. Anantarama Iyer,
a cousin, took the place of the guardian, only to cheat Bharati of
the small property that had been bequeathed to him by his father.
Having got the property, he drove Bharati away from home. This
poveity and its attendant hardships find their echo in the
following lines of Nandan:

"Nanmaiyum tunmaiyum illamal pochchu
Sandikkucchandhi kuttadida lachchu
Samiyum illamal engeyo pochchu"

[When neither good not bad stayed

The wanderers danced from one lane to another

Even God did not stay and strayed.]

It was at Mudikondan that this wandering orphan found his
first benefactors in Tashil Venkappa Aiyer, Peishkar
Muthuppaiyar and Mali Tyagaraja Aiyer. Mudikondan gave him
his early education. He studied Sanskrit under Diksha
Appaiyanathu Aiya, Tamil from Chokka Pillai, the father of
Subbaraya Vathiyar. He lived at Mudikondan in the Agraharam
East Street in the southern end. This was said to be Bharati's own
house. Under their patronage Bharati lived till he was about
twenty-five. Later, he moved to other places like
Tiruvidaimarudur, Konerirajapuram and Anandatandavapuram
and then returned to Mudikondan. That is why he came to be
known as Mudikondan Gopalakrishna Bharati. The first available
printed edition of his Nandanar Charitram in 1861, by the then
French Collector of Karaikkal, bears his name in this manner.

Gopalakrishna Bharati had no special attachment towards
worldly life. By nature he was a 'Bhakta' who stood at the feet of

GOPALAKRISHNA BHARATI

his master. He had his predilection towards Siva. He spent several
days of his life visiting Siva kshetras (temples). Stories of Saiva
Nayanars in Periya Puranam and Upamanyu's Bhakta Vilasam
appealed to him very much.

Bharati met Ramadas, a great master of Hindustani music, at
Tiruvidaimarudur. He learnt this style of singing with its modes
and characteristics, their fullness and variety. At this time he also
met the composers of Tamil songs, Ananta Bharati and Ghanam
Krishna Aiyer. Under their encouragement, Bharati's poetic
genius and musical talents got nurtured.

On Sri Rama Navami Day in 1835, Bharati came to
Anandatandavapuram. Here he was noticed by the rich Mirasdai
who gave him a helping hand. Annu Aiyar and Sivaswami Aiyar
who were then joined by Rishabhadhwaja Dikshitar, a Sanskrit
Scholar, were his patrons. It was at the suggestion of this latter
scholar that Bharati's crystallised ’Nandi-Chindu' song-form was
to be the basis for his grand Nandanar Charitram. Even while the
suggestion was in the offing, Bharati slipped away unnoticed to
the Siva temple at the nearby Tiruppangoor and stood devoutly
gazing at the Deity Sivalokanatha, and his obedient Nandi, the
Bull. Deeply moved by sudden and spontaneous inspiration,
Bharati began to sing in a tense voice the following superb songs.
Some of these were later incorporated by him into his Nandanar
Charitram.

Vazhi maraithirukkude—malai pola
madu paduthirukkude.

Orunalum varada bhaktan
Tirunalaippovarenum chittan
Ulahengum prasiddan kandu
Odunkamalirundadu kutram.

Satre vilahiyirum pillai
Sannidanam maraikkudam

* * *

Kudittar, yekkalittar, ullam kalittar.

[The divine bull is lying, obstructing

the view, like a hill

COMPOSERS

The devotee who had not come ever before
He is a mystic by name Tirunalaipovar
He is of universal fame
You have sinned by obstructing his view
Please move aside, my son!

* * *

Nandanar jumped in ecstasy with full
of Joy and to his
heart’s content.]

Annu Aiyar who came in search of him took him back home.
But thenceforth, Bharati lived independently so that he could
serve God better. He supported himself by doing unchavritti,
eating the food that is given as alms. He also began performing
the Katha Kalakshepam. For each of his performances, he was
given from ten to fifteen rupees. This money he deposited with
Annu Aiyar, the patron. After six months, the story of Nandan, in
its present form, was completed. The work immediately gained
popularity and fame.

Bharati, while writing the Nandanar Charitram, had deviated
from the original story of the Puranas. In order to dramatize it, he
had introduced a new but very popular character in the Brahmin,
Vediyar, as the landlord. Nandan is the farmer, cultivator, but a
Harijan and an outcaste. His anxiety to go to the temple of Siva in
the month of Markazhi (December) to see Siva in His sacred
Dance, and the Vediyar's anxiety for the caretaking of the lands
and his practical interests and their conflict forms the basis of this
story. The story has thus a spiritual reformatory purpose.

Gopalakrishna Bharati's greatest service to Tamil literature lies
in the simple diction of the spoken language that he uses. The
Vediyar's speech is in Sanskritised Tamil, and that of Nandan in
the colloquial language of the working class, lending dramatic
quality to the composition. As a musician we may say that he
raised the status of Katha Kalakshepam and, by imparting music
to it, made it worthy of the concert hall. Many of his songs are
separately sung at concerts and figure also in dance recitals.

At Anandatandavapuram one lady promised to serve him curd
every day. Bharati scolded her saying that she should not get him

GOPALAKRISHNA BHARATI

accustomed to such luxuries. This promise she kept for almost a
year. One day she quietly brought him only churned butter-milk.
This annoyed the poet. In that mood, he sang in praise of the
buffalo and cursed it.

Kedaragowla Raga—Adi Tala
Madavedu maharajanai pola
Vaittu rakshittirukkum
Karakkum yerumai
Nadu pukazhndidum padi '

Adi karakkum

Nammudai sottai

Nay urn teenda-dinda (Madavedu)

Salem seemaikkup poye
Panam Koduttappu pillai
Seshan vangi vandadoru madu
Palaik karandu panguvangiyum

adakukku

Pannam kodukkiran yedo
Parum gunamudaya (Madavedu)

[The buffalo nursed and nourished like a king
That buffalo yields a full measure of milk
and is popular in the country
It yields enough to feed the owner's family.

The buffalo, which was got from a distant
‘place like Salem by our friend Seshan, yields
so much milk that he is able to purchase
lands and also advance money on mortgage,
by the sale of milk.

What a nice buffalo !]

Not only is Bharati full of sentiments and love, we find him
also very humorous. Near Mudikondan is a village called
Tuttukkudi, where he sang the following in the form of Odam, a
boat-song; its humor may be noted.

"Tuttukudi tannil vazhum

mahajanangal

Danantataiya mahajanangal

COMPOSERS

Urukku Naradar Rayar Pillai Subbu
Oru panam sochcham poda
Subbaiyan idukku."

[The great people who live at Tuttukkudi,

Wonderful people they are;

With the misehief maker Subbu on the one hand
and the donor Subbaiyan on the other.

—The great people.]

The villagers were often seen humming this while sowing or
reaping their fields.Another song at Mudikondan village :—

"Paravaikal parrakkudu paren
Serukku Mudikondan
Chirappudane vilangum."

[See the birds fluttering
In proud Mudikondan
That shines with fame.]

It shows Bharati's interest in the fields and eultivable lands as well
as his appreciation of Nature. Since the poet lived up to his fortieth
year in Mudikondan, he composed songs on the agricultural
cultivable plots there and a few people in that village still
remember snatches of this song.

Bharati studied yoga and spiritual practices under Guru
Govinda Sivam who was at Mayuram then. Bharati composed
musical narratives on the lives of Saivite saints, lyarpakai
Nayanar Charitram, Tiruneelakantha Nayanar Charitram,
Karaikkal Ammaiyar Charitram, as also other philosophical
songs—Jnanacchindu, Jnankkummi, Chidambarakkummi and
several stray folk songs, classical music compositions, and
occasional songs. He composed also a funny drama called Mami
Natakam. He also enriched his narrative compositions by
including in them Ragamalikas, Viruttam (verses), Dandakam,
Chindu, Dwipadi, Tripadi, Lavani (based on Maharashtra style),
Todayam, Savayi, Dialogues, and humorous songs.

In these pieces, he has on the whole made use of no less than

GOPALAKRISHNA BHARATl

70 Ragas. Besides the basic or Kartha Ragas, he has used rare
Ragas like Gowri Manohari, Chakravakam, Sarasangi; and the
still rarer Ragas (apurva) like Manji, Nowroj, Saraswati
Manohari, Desiya Todi, Jingla, Kuranji, Karnataka Behag,
Isamanohari, Kanada, Saranga, Hamir Kalyani, Balahamsa, Sama
and so on.

In order to show the quality of his diction, the following song
may be cited :

Natanamakriya Raga Rupaka Tala

Natanamadinar (Aiyan) Tillai
Nayakan Ponnambalam tannil
Tarikita—Takajam tari—Tadinu Dhinuta,

Tadhina dinata—Kitatakudiki
Tattaneku Taka tallangu Taka tallangu

takatadinginnatom

[The Lord of Tillai

Danced on the Golden Stage
With rhythmic cadences of

Taritakita Takajam Tari-Tadinu
Dhinuta—Kitatakudiki
Tattaneku Taka Tallangu
Takatadinginnatom

{Of the drum)]

In this song which includes the rhythmic syllables (j^tis), the
dancing feet of Siva can easily be visualized. In order to show the
rare Ragas which he chose, the following may be quoted :

Hamir Kalyani Raga Rupaka Tala

Yedo Teriyamal pochchude—ini
Yenna seyven ?

Adi Paraparamakiya Tillai
Ponnambalavan.

[What shall I do?

I had not known

COMPOSERS

Somehow Oh! Eternal Lord!

Siva of the Golden Stage!

The bliss of your praise and

the happiness in your service!]

He was an expert in the rhythms. Bharati has made extensive
use of the Talas Adi, Misra, Eka, Chapu, Triputa, Rupaka,
Arijampa, Tisra Eka, Ada, Jampa, Misra Jampa, Desadi and so on.
Many of his songs contain the intricacies of rhythms, interwoven
and incorporated in the 'So'lukattus' (Sabda) of the song. For an
illustration the following may be quoted:

Riti Gowla Raga Misra Jampa Tala

Tandava darisanam tarum—tamadam
Pannavendam—idu Samayam
Andavanc un mahimaiye
Aravindurai seyvar
Nanareyen pedai
Y endanukkorutaram

[Bless me with thy divine Tandava dance,

Oh Lord ! delay not, this is the right moment
Who knows your fame
I know not. Show me once.]

Another song that may be quoted is :

Gowri Manohari Raga Misra Chapu Tala

Yeppo tolaium inda tunbam—

Jagadeesan karunai irundalallo inbam!

Garbhavasa dukkam Analum kedu !

Gowrimanoharanai dinam nadu.

[When will my suffering end
Oh Lord of the Universe,

There will be bliss

Only if there is your grace.

Birth in its embryo sinful.

So daily seek Gowri Manohara (Siva).]

GOPALAKRISHNA BHARATI

Another very popular song on the dance of Nataraja. runs
thus:—

Vasanta Raga Ata Tala

Ashta disaiyum gidu gidunga,

Seshan talai nadunga, andam
adita, Gangai tulisidara,

Ponnadarum kondada—
ishtamudane Gopala Krishnan
pada sadai ada, aravum
Vadamada adin padamada
Tom tomendru padavi tandomendru

(Natanam adinar)]

[All the eight corners (Diks) of the earth shook,

Adisesha's head shook,

The universe shook.

The Ganges sprayed.

The Devas praised,

Gopalakrishnan sang with love.

The Lord's matted locks swayed
The ornamental serpents and their hoods swayed
The Lord danced rhythmically
bestowing salvation on his devotees.]

Bharati popularised his songs by passing them on to his

students. The famous poet-musician Sri Vedanayakam Pillai who
was the District Munsif at Mayuram, at that time took his training
under Bharati and learnt the Nandanar Charitram, and taught it to
Krishna Bhagavatar. At the request of Kandappa Chetty, Bharati
went to Nagapattinam and gave a performance there. The
Nandi—Chindu in Nandanar Charitram became so popular that it
had to be repeated for five successive nights. Monsieur Susain
from Karaikkal got it printed at his own cost, after taking due
permission. Tyagaraja, the great classical composer, was said to
have been moved by the song in Raga Manji—'Varukalamo aiya',
"May I come near you. Oh Lord!" in which the humble Pariah-
devotee appeals to the Lord plaintively to approach Him! A Tamil
scholar Meenakshisundaram Pillai was thrilled by the song in
Raga Dhanyasi—opening with the word 'Kanakasabhapati.'

COMPOSERS

In 1859, when Bharati was barely 49 years old, and was
planning a seeond trip to popularise his other compositions, his
friendly patron Annu Aiyar suddenly died. His adopted son
Vengu Aiyar tried to take away all the money of Bharati. But
friends intervened -and persuaded that the money be returned. A
pupil, Ramaswami Aiyar of Mayuram, requested Bharati to
reinvest the same at a reliable Bank.

This event, however, turned him away from the hectic singing
mood. He yearned for a solitary state. He lived for some time
incognito, perhaps in the Ramalinga Swamigal's movement. This
state continued for over sixteen years. After Swamigal shook off
his mortal coils, Bharati resumed Kalakshepam in October 1876
at his pupil's residence with his lyarpakai Nayanar Charitram.
Mahavaidyanatha Aiyar, Ramaswami Sivan and Veena Vaidyana-
tha Aiyar of Mayuram are said to have attended this great
performance.

The song 'Yezhai-p-parpanadi' on the 'poor' penitent Brahmin
Landlord moved Ramaswami Sivan so much that he set a song of
his 'Muttukumararaiyane' in the same tune. At the instance of
Vedanayakam Pillai, his talented student's performance of the
Nandanar Charitram, was arranged at Mayuram and was attended
by Bharati and others. Sri Krishna Bhagavatar's rendering
enchanted Bharati who went up and blessed the musician.

In the next five years Bharati stayed at Mayuram with his
disciple Ramaswami Aiyar. He gave away his savings to the
temples of Mayuram and Chidambaram. On the Mahasivaratri day
of 1881, after the first evening puja at the temple, Bharati came
home to rest and closed for ever his eyes.

Of Bharati's personal appearance we have heard that he was of
medium stature and build, medium in complexion and
unimpressive in appearance. He had a bulging forehead, stooping
shoulders, somewhat bald and with somewhat bent legs. He wore
his dhoti only up to the knee, and had an upper cloth. But his
dress was always spotlessly white. Around his neck Bharati wore
a red thread with a single 'Rudraksha' bead which was quite
conspicuous by being close to his protruding Adam's Apple. He
was quite humble, sensitive and inclined to show an inferiority

GOPALAKRISHNA BHARATI

complex. But the kindness and cordiality of his friends like Annu
Aiyar and students like Ramaswami Iyer made him free from all
malice.

At one time, after inviting him, one Aghora Sastri of
Mayuram, agreed to Gottuvadyam Krishnan's arrangement of
Selva Ganapati Bhagavatar to sing at the discourse. Bharati asked
them to give him the chance to perform at least the next day but it
was denied. Then came a new song, one in the Maharashtrian
Lavani style, castigating Aghora Sastri.

Jagam pugazh Nandan Charittiram Ketka
Janangal Asai Kondar
Aghora Sastri pillai Marumahan
Azhaithidum sedi sonnen.

[The people (of Mayuram) expressed a desire to hear my
musical discourse of the story of the famous Bhakta Nandanar and
the nephew of Aghora Sastri (of Mayuram) conveyed this news to
me.]

Ghoshtigaludane tamburu talam
Kondanke sendren;

Gottuvadya Krishnaiyan—
eni Kudathenac-chonnan.

[I went there with my party and accompaniments to
perform— only to be informed by Gottuvadyam Krishna Iyer to
my disappointment—^that the programme was scrapped.]

Pattu patinaintu ketparam; anta
Bharati Kathai vendam;

Sittamudane Selva Ganapati vanthal
Selavo illai enrar.

[He had so advised, presuming that I may demand some ten or
fifteen rupees; on the other hand, a performance by
Selvaganapathi may cost very little, as he will be satisfied with
whatever pittance he is paid.]

COMPOSERS

Kalarai Veesam koduttalum athaik
Kandiththu kelanam (Ganapati)

Valum, tholuma pinainthoru kathai pola
Vantha mattum sonnan.

[Accordingly Selvaganapathi gave a haphazard performance
within his capacity.]

Eppadiye Irendu thadavai achuthendren
Enna sethi entren.

Appa namenna seyvoin ? Athu kathai
Achuthendru sonnan.

[I was thus disappointed twice, but I contacted them a third
time only to hear them plead their inability to engage me.]

Vilakku vaiththalum pothumentren
Verondrum Vendilane!

Uzhakile kizhakku Merkku parpathu Ulaganthanilundo ?

[I even offered to render the performance if only the lights and
nothing else were provided at the dais but they were very panicky
with this affair.]

Marattiya pennai padach cholli vegu
mariyathaikal seythar
Vetilazhithu thanjavur (thyyalai) paiyanai
vedikai parthu vittar.

[But they had rewarded liberally a Mahratta woman who gave
a vocal recital. He (the nephew of Aghora Sastri) had fun with her
in his house.]

Pasiththu vandan, Oru kani kandan, athai
Parthan; Mavelai!

Esainthathuthan upamanamendru
Enke erunthathy.

[A hungry man saw a fruit-only to find that it was plaster
work. That example can be cited in this instance.]

GOPALAKRISHNA BHARATI

(Harahara) Nandan Charitram Natesar Mahimai

Nachai Mudinthathu Par!

Engilum kanen entha adhisayam

Enke erunthathy Par!

[The opportunity to deliver a musical discourse of the
Nandanar Charitram—the glory of our Lord Nataraja—thus had a
bitter episode. So much disappointment I had nowhere else!]

Some wag had his fling at Bharati once:

Koonakurugal nirguna ‘

Durguna asuya ahankara Gopalakrishna Bharati

[Stunted, worthless, vicious, malicious, proud Gopala Krishna
Bharati.]

After all that is said, we remember Gopala Krishna Bharati of
Mudikondan as a godly composer, capable of mellifluous songs
with striking rhythms, gifted singer, and author of a masterpiece
in Tamil whose popularity has been growing in concert, dance,
stage and screen.

SWAMI HARIDAS

B. C. Deva

Swami Haridas has a particularly significant place in the music
of North India, for the age in which he lived was an extremely
active and productive one. The Moghul Empire was at its acme,
with Emperor Akbar on the throne. All walks of life—social,
economic, religious and artistic—were throwing up brilliant men.
It is, therefore, not very surprising that Haridas found a favourable
environment to give his best to society. While one cannot say that
he was a pioneer in creating new forms of music, he was certainly
a strong driving force in the spread of music, particularly
devotional music and the type called dhrupad.

The details of his biography are not well known and what little
is known is a subject of controversy. There are different schools
holding different views. In the opinion of some, Swami Haridas
was born in Multan or Hoshiarpur of Punjab. It is also said that
the place of his birth was some village in Haryana in North India.

There are two better known traditions. According to one of
them, Swami Haridas was born in 1480 AD. (Samvat 1537,
Bhadrapad, Sukla Astami, Budh) in a village called Rajpur, near
Brindavan. His father was Gangadhar and his mother's name was
Chitra Devi. They were Sanadhya Brahmins. At the age of
twenty-five Haridas was initiated into sannyasa by Asudhir, a
Saraswat Brahmin. The yogic lineage to which this group
belonged was the Nimbarka sampradaya or the virakta parampara.
This seems to have taken on the appellation Tatti sampradaya in
later times. He is said to have died in 1575 A.D

Some scholars; however, are of the opinion that Haridas's
father was one Asudhir, a Saraswat Brahmin from Multan.

SWAMI HARIDAS

Asudhir's wife was Ganga Devi. They migrated to the village
Khairwali Sadak, near Aligarh in Uttar Pradesh. It was here that
Haridas was born in 1512 AD. (Samvat 1569, Paush, Sukla
Trayo-dasi, Sukra). It is in memory of Swami Haridas that the
village of his birth is now called Haridaspur. At the age of twenty-
five Haridas was given initiation into sannyasa by his father. He
left his mortal coils in 1607 AD.

In any case, the significant fact was that from childhood he
was drawn to a recluse's life. He became a sannyasi even as a
youth and shifted his residence to Brindavan, the play-ground of
the Immortal Cowherd and his love, Radha. There he made his
asram in Nidhuvan and poured out in the seclusion of his
hermitage his songs of the love of Radha-Krishna.

Swami Haridas was a musician, poet and mystic, all in one. As
a musician he was a great singer of dhrupads and taught musicians
like Tansen. As a poet he composed verses in Braj Bhasha (the
dialect spoken around Mathura and Brindavan). As a mystic he
belonged to the tradition of Vaishnava devotion of Radha-
Krishna.

The compositional type called dhrupad in North India seems to
have had its origin in very ancient times. Even Bharata in his
Natya Sastra (2nd AD) uses the word dhruva-giti. Dhruva perhaps
meant "the basis of song in which words are set to a definite
pattern". The words used in such compositions were called
dhruvapad (pada meaning 'word'). In later periods the classical
music of North India saw the growth of prabandha, a kind of
composition with various sections, generally four in number. Of
these, there was one section called the dhruva. Now this dhruva
was the 'burden' of the composition and was never omitted. The
words (pada) used in the dhruva were the dhruva-pada. The
prabandha style of composing and singing were popular till about
the 14th century. From then on dhruvapad comes into vogue in
North India; prabandha recedes to the background but, perhaps, its
remnants could be found in the songs of some Vaishnava temples.
The dhrupad, as in some earlier prabandbas, had four sections—
the sthayi (burden), the antara, which moves in higher pitches, the
sanchari and abhoga. It was in this kind of dhrupad that Swami
Haridas sang his songs of divine love.

100

COMPOSERS

The period in which the Swami lived saw the highest stage of
dhrupad. The area in which he lived also was a fertile region of
musical creation. For Raja Man Singh Tomar,one of the greatest
patrons of dhrupad, reigned at Gwalior near the Braja land of
Mathura and Brindavan. The period just prior to the century
saw the invasion and spread of Central Asian culture in India.
Enormous cultural movements took place during this time and a
kind of stability seems to have prevailed during the kingship of
Allauddin Khilji (1296-1316 AD). It is during this time that the
renowned singer, Gopal Nayak, lived and sang dhruvapads. But
the succeeding century is dark and we do not hear much of any
great musical life in the North. There seems to have been a
general lack of royal patronage of indigenous music.

Man Singh Tomar's rule lasted for nearly thirty years (1486-
1516 AD). He was a connoisseur and patron of music. Under his
enlightened support dhrupad found a creative environment for
growth. His efforts were the cause of the production of Krishna-
lila padas in Braj dialect, modelled on the songs of Vidyapati. In
his court were a galaxy of musicians like Bakshu, Bhannu and
Baiju (?). Tansen sang of his glory and mentioned him as his
patron. It was in this atmosphere of a benign and cultured ruler
that the dhruvapad blossomed.

Depending on the text, dhrupads were of two kinds: Vishnu-
pad and Dhruvapad. Their musical structures were similar but in
content they were different. Vishnupads, as the name shows, sang
of the life and deeds of Lord Krishna and were in praise of him.
The other variety had as its text subjects like description of
seasons, eulogies of kings and so on. Eventually the Vishnu-pads
became an important part of the repertoire of devotional songs of
Vaishnavaites. But, the style of singing of these dhrupads seems
to have been considerably different from those sung in the Royal
Muslim courts of the day.

Swami Haridas’s compositions were, then, strictly Vishnupads.
But even his songs which do not strictly refer to Lord Krishna,
have been called Vishnupads, perhaps because of the general tone
and the mystic source of his music. There is not much doubt,
however, that his compositions were musically of the dhrupad
type. He is also said to have composed tirwats, ragamalas and so

SWAMI HARIDAS

101

on. There are about 128 compositions extant in this tradition, of
which about 18 are philosophical and 110 devotional. The former
are known as Siddhanta pada, and the latter as the Keli mala.

That he was deeply learned and widely acquainted with the
music of his days is evident. He describes how Radha and Krishna
are sporting and says, "Two beams of light are playing. Unique
are their dance and music. Ragas and Raginis of heavenly beauty
are born. The two have sunk themselves in the ocean of raga."
Besides such description of ragas, mention is found in his works
of stringed instruments like kinnari and aghouti. His compositions
also contain references to mridanga, duff, alapana and ragas like-
kedara,'gouri, malhar, vasant.

The saint-singer was not only a great musician himself but also
a great teacher and inspiration to many a musician. The greatest of
his pupils was Tansen, one of the "nine gems" of Akbar's court.
Tansen's discipleship with Swami Haridas is still a matter of
tradition and popular belief There is no incontrovertible evidence
that this Tansen was a student of the Saint. Further, neither the
life of Tansen, nor his style shows an imprint of the religious
fervour of Haridas. He was a courtier, having all the ambitions
and attitudes of his class and there is no tradition of his having
lived in Brindavan. There seems to have been another Tansen who
was disciple of Govinda Swami. This second Tansen who
composed many Vishnupads lived about three decades later and
spent his last days in Brindavan,

A popular account has it that the great dhrupad singer and
composer, Baiju, was a contemporary of Tansen and a disciple of
the Swami. The Raga Darpana, which is a translation of Mi
Kutuhal compiled at the instance of Raja Man Singh, does not
mention Baiju’s name. However, Jagannatha of Shahajahan's
court talks of Nayak Baiju and Nayak Gopal as being prior even
to Bakshu of Man Singh's court. As Swami Haridas was a child
when this king ascended the throne of Gwalior, Baiju could not
have been a pupil of Haridas.

Incidentally it may be mentioned that there was another
Haridas,a dhrupad singer of eminence. This musician was called
Haridas Dagur and it is probable that he lived much later than

102

COMPOSERS

Swami Haridas. The greatness of the Swami was not of his having
been only musician. As was already mentioned, his songs have a
literary beauty and fine simplicity. But, above all he was a great
mystic and devotee, belonging to the lineage of the saint-singers
of the "Bhakti movement"—a socio-religious surge which
engulfed the whole of India, influencing its music extensively,
deeply.

Bhakti (adoration) is an intensely personal devotion to the
Godhead. Such personal and emotional attachment finds it outlet
in various modes of human expression and a state of ecstatic
relation of the bhakta (devotee) to the Adored is voiced forth in
poems, hymns and songs. The Vedic hymns to Ushas and Varun
are some of our earliest devotional songs. But a very powerful and
overwhelming social wave swept over this country, particularly
after the Bhagavata pur ana, Ramanuja and Madhva, say roughly
after the 10th century AD. This force was something new and a
sustained effort was made to give this divine emotion and vision a
theological orientation. The popular Krishna legend was
converted into mystic symbolism. The attachment of the
individual to the Adored might take on the colour of awe,
humility (santabhava), respect, subservience (dasya bhava),
friendship (sakhya bhava) and love of the lover to the beloved
(madhurya bhava). With the almost complete identification of
Krishna with the Adored, there was a large-scale exodus and
pilgrimage of bhaktas to Brindavan, the pasture land where
Krishna dallied with gopis (milkmaids). This naturally made the
madhurya bhava the finest form of adoration, raising the physical
love of man and woman to the mystical love of man to the Lord.

Swami Haridas belonged to this tradition of madhurya bhakti.
It is said that he was deeply affected by the southern philosopher
and bhakta, Nimbarka. Nimbarka, a Telugu philosopher of the
13th century, sojourned to the North spreading the gospel of
Radha-Krishna love. This missionary expounded the philosophy
of bhedabheda: the doctrine of difference-cum-identity as between
the Supreme soul and the individual soul. Swami Haridas's
religious philosophy embraces not only the Radha-Krishna love
and adoration, but the witnessing of the love by the human
mind—a state of mind called the rasa. This aspect of rasa, the

SWAMl HARIDAS

103

witnessing of differentiated-non-differentiated plays of Radha-
Krishna, is the central theme of all his songs and teachings. In this
ecstatic trance he sings the play of Krishna among the bowers of
Brindavan; that is why his Lord of adoration is called Kunj bihari
(Kunj ==lover, bihari = one who plays). Even more than the Lord,
Radha becomes the central figure of all his songs. He sings, "who
knows of the quality of things more than Radha ? If anyone has
any knowledge at all, it is by her grace. None knows the beauty of
raga, tala and dance, as Radha does. Many are the savants who
have acquired mastery over the principles of music, the purity and
form of it; but they are as if defeated in the presence of Radha's
knowledge of beauties of the art."

Swami Haridas began the Haridasi sampradaya and he had
many a spiritual disciple. Some of the more important of this
lineage were Vitthal, Vipul, Viharin Dev, Krishna Das. They
fostered his tradition of devotional music. The main feature of this
was congregational singing. In the Braja country this congregation
is called the samaj and is akin to the sankirtan of Bengal and the
bhajana goshti of South India. Even to this day devotees gather
for the samaj on special occasions and sing of the holy love of
Radha and Krishna.

Swami Haridas was a recluse and a hermit. From the age of
twenty-five when he became a sannyasi he kept away from
earthly wealth and power. It is said that once a rich merchant
devotee of the Swami gave him a vial of exquisite scent. The saint
buried it then and there in the earth. The devotee was indeed sore
that so costly a gift was treated as of so little a value. However,
when he visited the temple the next day, he not only found the
sanctum filled with the pleasant smell of the unguent, but the very
idol of the Lord appeared bathed in it.

Though one of the greatest singers of his time, Haridas was
completely indifferent to any laurels. He shunned all publicity. A
story goes that the Emperor Akbar wanted to hear him. It was, of
course, impossible to fetch the Swami to the Royal court; and the
hermitage was out of bounds to kings and such like. Finally
Tansen suggested a ruse. Akbar would go in rags as a tambura
bearer with Tansen to Haridas. So the two went and the Emperor
listened with rapt wonder to the heavenly music. When they came

COMPOSERS

104

back to the court, Akbar remarked to Tansen, "How is it that with
all your greatness your music is so poor compared to the Swami's
?" Tansen replied, "What else can it be? For I sing to the Emperor
of this land, but he sings to the Emperor of the Creation." For
Haridas was a saint, a mystic and a singer completely dedicated to
the adoration of Kunj bihari and immersed in the rasa of this
ecstasy. Hence it is said that "a rasika like him has not been on
this earth or the sky; neither will there be one like him."

S^y/V'^1v5< • '■• ■•■ '• ■ y. T^-■ ■>.

r V >X '■'•''•>(?•■■ :' ■ ■ ''.■"1

'■'• . *iT]

'• <- ■ ».

-^JSSSm ' V -»■■ \\* u- ^

'■^isSSSR ‘ • !’• ' V’l3K!^w^?fciT9wHH * ^"i/j. '* •■•■•■», v4 T^u

■ --j- '* -./■!: »•.'«*<JT-'j

y-st-t., ’. •‘.' . '■

g‘ ■

I «

. . *%

Ml y'^«»j>^#l

..- • -■' ''A»a

■ . I ■'

1 ,.*=■’

V..*•!•► ♦ *' , *rii I- « « ^ 1

ipaiKji r -'

. '.: ./t ■'• ■; ..;■ V?''Ss

" ••-, A 4 r*^ 4 *?^ .* . . . ■» *kr*»

■ 'V

t, a

: 1

' ^ .'■» • • Willey :■ i‘,

■ .< , -lUf. --.'.•.,i,''v.'.j

•: r

, I'ii

■’ ■» 4-

■'i 4v'(

Mi:i V.:> - V!fP»

ito-i-iuif, •, y -y-y

L^ '

W ■

. , v:, ,:■ ■ ■

■ ■'’^^’3’ V « ■' '•v..'i ■

I,**

., ^^vSSSp-M

- “s

“ ^ if ^ vMi*'

Its..,, - ■ \Jti(T ^.i ''k#!. li.^. • ‘

CULTURAL LEADERS OF INDIA

The galaxy of composers in this volume
includes Jayadeva of Gita Govinda fame,
Annamacharya, w ho shares with
Purandaradasa the honour of being the
PUamaha oi Karnataka miisic^ Kshetrajna, a
specialist in madhura bhakti, Tyagaraja,
Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri,
the trinity of Karnataka music, Maharaja
Svati Tirunal, the royal composer from
Travancore and Gopal Krishna Bharati,
who has won immortal fame by his
composition on Nanda, the pariah. Amir
Khusrau who is a product of the blend of
bvo cultures, Haridars and Tansen, the
pioneers of the highest form of Hindustani
music, Dhrupad, are three outstanding
names in the history of Hindustani music.
Haridas was a saint-singer who sang only of
God and for God only.

^ PUBUCATfONS DIVISION
S] MINISTRY OF INFORMATION

In our country we are familiar with a
large number of devotional poets whose
outpourings are part of our musical
heritage. Some of them have an important
place in the history of our music and the
evolution of musical forms. It is difficult to
draw the line between these devotional poets
and the composers who form the subject of
this volume.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Composers"

See other formats